Granular activated carbon management at a water treatment plant
- Authors: Clements, Michele
- Date: 2009-02-26T12:16:56Z
- Subjects: Water treatment plants , Water purification , Water purification filtration , Activated carbon
- Type: Thesis
- Identifier: uj:8148 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/2155
- Description: M.Ing. , The Rietvlei Water Treatment Plant was extended with a granular activated carbon (GAC) filtration system after an exhaustive series of tests, which were started in 1994. Upon commissioning towards the middle of 1999, a year of close monitoring followed to measure the GAC performance at full-scale. After verification that the GAC does indeed ensure a high quality product under all conditions, the emphasis shifted to the optimisation of the GAC handling and regeneration system. Frequently moving the entire GAC inventory from the filters to an off-site regeneration plant and back requires significant operational effort and contributes a major part of the total cost of the GAC system. A number of systematic investigations were carried out in response to a number of practical questions that arose at Rietvlei. The first part of the study was directed towards tracking and quantifying the GAC on and off site. The main findings were that 10.0% of the GAC is lost from the filter during backwashing (0.3%) and removal of GAC from the filter for regeneration (9.7%). The sump traps not all this GAC and 2.3% of the total inventory is lost to the river. Inserting a sieve at the outlet of the sump can eliminate this loss. A further 80.3% of the GAC in a filter is removed for regeneration, of which 18.7% is lost during the regeneration process. The minimising off this loss can only be achieved through the optimisation of the regeneration process, which falls within the domain of the regeneration contractor. The second part of the study was directed at the behaviour of the GAC whilst within the filter bed. The porosity and sphericity was determined by laboratory tests and calculations. The porosity was found to be 0.69 for the 12 x 40 size carbon and 0.66 for the 8 x 30 size carbon and the sphericity was found to be 0.67 for the 12 x 40 size carbon and 0.66 for the 8 x 30 size carbon. By using a calibrated bed expansion model, the bed expansion could be calculated at 9°C and 23°C for the two carbons gradings; the maximum temperature range experienced at Rietvlei. The main finding of this part of the study was that the average available freeboard is 650 mm for the 12 x 40 grading and 430 mm for the 8 x 30 grading, and therefore no GAC should wash over the weir at all during backwashing. The third part of the study measured the physical changes of the GAC found at different points in the GAC cycle. The main findings were that the small fraction of GAC washed out of the bed during backwashing and removal has a finer grading, higher apparent density and lower adsorption capacity than the GAC in the filter bed. There seems to be no marked attrition of the carbon or generation of fines during the removal and transport of the GAC to the regeneration plant. After regeneration, there was a 7% decrease in apparent density and a 30% increase in adsorption capacity. The final part of the study correlated the adsorption capacity of the GAC with its time in use as well as UV254 removal. After regeneration, UV254 removal begins at approximately 20% and declines to 14% after 400 days of operation, and to 10% after 600 days. After regeneration, the iodine number begins at approximately 800, declines to 600 after 400 days of operation, and to 500 after 600 days.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Clements, Michele
- Date: 2009-02-26T12:16:56Z
- Subjects: Water treatment plants , Water purification , Water purification filtration , Activated carbon
- Type: Thesis
- Identifier: uj:8148 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/2155
- Description: M.Ing. , The Rietvlei Water Treatment Plant was extended with a granular activated carbon (GAC) filtration system after an exhaustive series of tests, which were started in 1994. Upon commissioning towards the middle of 1999, a year of close monitoring followed to measure the GAC performance at full-scale. After verification that the GAC does indeed ensure a high quality product under all conditions, the emphasis shifted to the optimisation of the GAC handling and regeneration system. Frequently moving the entire GAC inventory from the filters to an off-site regeneration plant and back requires significant operational effort and contributes a major part of the total cost of the GAC system. A number of systematic investigations were carried out in response to a number of practical questions that arose at Rietvlei. The first part of the study was directed towards tracking and quantifying the GAC on and off site. The main findings were that 10.0% of the GAC is lost from the filter during backwashing (0.3%) and removal of GAC from the filter for regeneration (9.7%). The sump traps not all this GAC and 2.3% of the total inventory is lost to the river. Inserting a sieve at the outlet of the sump can eliminate this loss. A further 80.3% of the GAC in a filter is removed for regeneration, of which 18.7% is lost during the regeneration process. The minimising off this loss can only be achieved through the optimisation of the regeneration process, which falls within the domain of the regeneration contractor. The second part of the study was directed at the behaviour of the GAC whilst within the filter bed. The porosity and sphericity was determined by laboratory tests and calculations. The porosity was found to be 0.69 for the 12 x 40 size carbon and 0.66 for the 8 x 30 size carbon and the sphericity was found to be 0.67 for the 12 x 40 size carbon and 0.66 for the 8 x 30 size carbon. By using a calibrated bed expansion model, the bed expansion could be calculated at 9°C and 23°C for the two carbons gradings; the maximum temperature range experienced at Rietvlei. The main finding of this part of the study was that the average available freeboard is 650 mm for the 12 x 40 grading and 430 mm for the 8 x 30 grading, and therefore no GAC should wash over the weir at all during backwashing. The third part of the study measured the physical changes of the GAC found at different points in the GAC cycle. The main findings were that the small fraction of GAC washed out of the bed during backwashing and removal has a finer grading, higher apparent density and lower adsorption capacity than the GAC in the filter bed. There seems to be no marked attrition of the carbon or generation of fines during the removal and transport of the GAC to the regeneration plant. After regeneration, there was a 7% decrease in apparent density and a 30% increase in adsorption capacity. The final part of the study correlated the adsorption capacity of the GAC with its time in use as well as UV254 removal. After regeneration, UV254 removal begins at approximately 20% and declines to 14% after 400 days of operation, and to 10% after 600 days. After regeneration, the iodine number begins at approximately 800, declines to 600 after 400 days of operation, and to 500 after 600 days.
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Turbidity removal at twenty-one South African water treatment plants
- Van Staden, S. J., Amod, A., Ceronio, A. D., Haarhoff, J.
- Authors: Van Staden, S. J. , Amod, A. , Ceronio, A. D. , Haarhoff, J.
- Date: 2002
- Subjects: Water treatment plants , Turbidity removal
- Language: English
- Type: Conference proceedings
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10210/16583 , uj:15787 , Citation: Van Staden, S.J. et al. 2002. Turbidity removal at twenty-one South African water treatment plants. 8th Biennial Conference of the Water Institute of Southern Africa, 19-23 May 2002, ICC, Durban, WISA 198, 10p.
- Description: Abstract: The Water Research Group at the Rand Afrikaans University undertook an ambitious sampling and monitoring programme at twenty-one South African water treatment plants during 2000 and 2001. At some of these plants, there were parallel but different treatment trains due to plant extensions being made at different times. A total of 25 full or partial treatment trains could therefore be monitored. A total of 115 plant visits were made over a period of fifteen months, with samples taken throughout the plant, covering the complete treatment train from raw to final water. Amongst other parameters, the turbidity of each sample was determined on site immediately upon sampling. This paper will summarise and interpret the resulting data set of approximately 1300 turbidity values. The paper will firstly characterise the raw and final waters respectively. In other words, how does typical raw water vary, and how good is the typical final water produced? The second part will summarise the typical performance of each of the treatment processes. In other words, what reduction in turbidity is typically achieved during settling, dissolved air flotation and filtration? The paper will make a practical contribution in providing a benchmark to all operators of treatment plants by: · being able to immediately "position" themselves within a typical range of raw water values. · judging their final water quality against what is generally achieved, and · evaluating and troubleshooting their individual process units against what is generally achieved.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Van Staden, S. J. , Amod, A. , Ceronio, A. D. , Haarhoff, J.
- Date: 2002
- Subjects: Water treatment plants , Turbidity removal
- Language: English
- Type: Conference proceedings
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10210/16583 , uj:15787 , Citation: Van Staden, S.J. et al. 2002. Turbidity removal at twenty-one South African water treatment plants. 8th Biennial Conference of the Water Institute of Southern Africa, 19-23 May 2002, ICC, Durban, WISA 198, 10p.
- Description: Abstract: The Water Research Group at the Rand Afrikaans University undertook an ambitious sampling and monitoring programme at twenty-one South African water treatment plants during 2000 and 2001. At some of these plants, there were parallel but different treatment trains due to plant extensions being made at different times. A total of 25 full or partial treatment trains could therefore be monitored. A total of 115 plant visits were made over a period of fifteen months, with samples taken throughout the plant, covering the complete treatment train from raw to final water. Amongst other parameters, the turbidity of each sample was determined on site immediately upon sampling. This paper will summarise and interpret the resulting data set of approximately 1300 turbidity values. The paper will firstly characterise the raw and final waters respectively. In other words, how does typical raw water vary, and how good is the typical final water produced? The second part will summarise the typical performance of each of the treatment processes. In other words, what reduction in turbidity is typically achieved during settling, dissolved air flotation and filtration? The paper will make a practical contribution in providing a benchmark to all operators of treatment plants by: · being able to immediately "position" themselves within a typical range of raw water values. · judging their final water quality against what is generally achieved, and · evaluating and troubleshooting their individual process units against what is generally achieved.
- Full Text:
How to measure specific deposit washout and backwash efficiency of granular filters
- Van Staden, S. J., Haarhoff, J.
- Authors: Van Staden, S. J. , Haarhoff, J.
- Date: 2010
- Subjects: Water treatment plants , Carbon, Activated , Water - Purification - Membrane filtration
- Language: English
- Type: Conference proceedings
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10210/16407 , uj:15770 , Van Staden, S.J., & Haarhoff, J. 2010. How to measure specific deposit washout and backwash efficiency of granular filters. In: Proceedings of the IWA Young Water Professionals Conference, 5-7 July 2010, Sydney, Australia, pC2, 11p.
- Description: Abstract: Practical experience shows that water treatment filters develop problems over time due to the routine running of the filter, including backwashing. There are difficulties in maintaining filters in good condition, given the eutrophic state of many South African raw waters, high water temperatures and the development of difficult-to-remove biofilm as a result. Such difficulties are often related to deposits accumulated on the filter media and it is, therefore, expected that the backwash system should be good enough to ensure that the filter is kept clean in the long run. This paper deals with a fairly simple operational option to significantly improve backwash efficiency at treatment plants where air and water are used consecutively. The paper describes methods used and typical results obtained in the testing of the quantitative benefits of multiple wash cycles. Multiple washing shows great promise for improving backwash efficiency, with an average of an additional 40% to 50% of the solids that would have been washed out with a single wash, removed by a second wash. Furthermore, third and even fourth washes continue to remove additional dirt from the filter. Multiple washing, therefore, may be a useful tool for the effective rehabilitation of a filter, as well as for routine operation procedures.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Van Staden, S. J. , Haarhoff, J.
- Date: 2010
- Subjects: Water treatment plants , Carbon, Activated , Water - Purification - Membrane filtration
- Language: English
- Type: Conference proceedings
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10210/16407 , uj:15770 , Van Staden, S.J., & Haarhoff, J. 2010. How to measure specific deposit washout and backwash efficiency of granular filters. In: Proceedings of the IWA Young Water Professionals Conference, 5-7 July 2010, Sydney, Australia, pC2, 11p.
- Description: Abstract: Practical experience shows that water treatment filters develop problems over time due to the routine running of the filter, including backwashing. There are difficulties in maintaining filters in good condition, given the eutrophic state of many South African raw waters, high water temperatures and the development of difficult-to-remove biofilm as a result. Such difficulties are often related to deposits accumulated on the filter media and it is, therefore, expected that the backwash system should be good enough to ensure that the filter is kept clean in the long run. This paper deals with a fairly simple operational option to significantly improve backwash efficiency at treatment plants where air and water are used consecutively. The paper describes methods used and typical results obtained in the testing of the quantitative benefits of multiple wash cycles. Multiple washing shows great promise for improving backwash efficiency, with an average of an additional 40% to 50% of the solids that would have been washed out with a single wash, removed by a second wash. Furthermore, third and even fourth washes continue to remove additional dirt from the filter. Multiple washing, therefore, may be a useful tool for the effective rehabilitation of a filter, as well as for routine operation procedures.
- Full Text:
Granular activated carbon performance at three Southern African water treatment plants
- Authors: Olivier, Johan
- Date: 2011-12-07
- Subjects: Water treatment plants , Water purification , Activated carbon
- Type: Thesis
- Identifier: uj:1859 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/4216
- Description: M. Ing.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Olivier, Johan
- Date: 2011-12-07
- Subjects: Water treatment plants , Water purification , Activated carbon
- Type: Thesis
- Identifier: uj:1859 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/4216
- Description: M. Ing.
- Full Text:
How to measure specific deposit washout and backwash efficiency of granular filters
- Van Staden, S.J., Haarhoff, J.
- Authors: Van Staden, S.J. , Haarhoff, J.
- Date: 2011
- Subjects: Water - Purification - Membrane filtration , Water treatment plants , Carbon, Activated
- Language: English
- Type: Article
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10210/16971 , uj:15830 , Van Staden, S.J. & Haarhoff, J. (2011) How to measure the specific deposit washout and backwash efficiency of granular filters. Water Practice and Technology 6 (1) DOI:10.2166/WPT. 2011.014.
- Description: Abstract Practical experience shows that water treatment filters develop problems over time due to the routine running of the filter, including backwashing. There are difficulties in maintaining filters in good condition, given the eutrophic state of many South African raw waters, high water temperatures and the development of difficult-to-remove biofilm as a result. Such difficulties are often related to deposits accumulated on the filter media and it is, therefore, expected that the backwash system should be good enough to ensure that the filter is kept clean in the long run. This paper deals with a fairly simple operational option to significantly improve backwash efficiency at treatment plants where air and water are used consecutively. The paper describes methods used and typical results obtained in the testing of the quantitative benefits of multiple wash cycles. Multiple washing shows great promise for improving backwash efficiency, with an average of an additional 40% to 50% of the solids that would have been washed out with a single wash, removed by a second wash. Furthermore, third and even fourth washes continue to remove additional dirt from the filter. Multiple washing, therefore, may be a useful tool for the effective rehabilitation of a filter, as well as for routine operation procedures.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Van Staden, S.J. , Haarhoff, J.
- Date: 2011
- Subjects: Water - Purification - Membrane filtration , Water treatment plants , Carbon, Activated
- Language: English
- Type: Article
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10210/16971 , uj:15830 , Van Staden, S.J. & Haarhoff, J. (2011) How to measure the specific deposit washout and backwash efficiency of granular filters. Water Practice and Technology 6 (1) DOI:10.2166/WPT. 2011.014.
- Description: Abstract Practical experience shows that water treatment filters develop problems over time due to the routine running of the filter, including backwashing. There are difficulties in maintaining filters in good condition, given the eutrophic state of many South African raw waters, high water temperatures and the development of difficult-to-remove biofilm as a result. Such difficulties are often related to deposits accumulated on the filter media and it is, therefore, expected that the backwash system should be good enough to ensure that the filter is kept clean in the long run. This paper deals with a fairly simple operational option to significantly improve backwash efficiency at treatment plants where air and water are used consecutively. The paper describes methods used and typical results obtained in the testing of the quantitative benefits of multiple wash cycles. Multiple washing shows great promise for improving backwash efficiency, with an average of an additional 40% to 50% of the solids that would have been washed out with a single wash, removed by a second wash. Furthermore, third and even fourth washes continue to remove additional dirt from the filter. Multiple washing, therefore, may be a useful tool for the effective rehabilitation of a filter, as well as for routine operation procedures.
- Full Text:
How can filter cleanliness be determined?
- Van Staden, S. J., Haarhoff, J.
- Authors: Van Staden, S. J. , Haarhoff, J.
- Date: 2010
- Subjects: Water - Purification , Water treatment plants
- Language: English
- Type: Conference proceedings
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10210/16461 , uj:15775 , Van Staden, S.J. & Haarhoff, J. 2010. How can filter cleanliness be determined? In: Proceedings of the 11th WaterNet/WARFSA/GWP-SA Symposium, 27-29 October 2010, Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe:676-690
- Description: Abstract: It is general believed that a sand filter starts its life with new, perfectly clean media, which becomes gradually clogged with each filtration cycle, eventually getting to a point where either head loss or filtrate quality starts to deteriorate. At this point the backwash cycle is initiated and, through the combined action of air and water, returns the media to its original perfectly clean state. Reality, however, dictates otherwise. Many treatment plants visited a decade or more after commissioning are found to have unacceptably dirty filter sand and backwash systems incapable of returning the filter media to a desired state of cleanliness. In some cases, these problems are common ones encountered in filtration plants but many reasons for media deterioration remain elusive, falling outside of these common problems. The South African conditions of highly eutrophic surface waters at high temperatures exacerbate the problems with dirty filter media as such conditions lead to the formation of biofilm in the filter media, shown to inhibit the effective backwashing of sand and carbon filters A systematic investigation into filter media cleanliness was therefore started in 2002 at the University of Johannesburg (the then Rand Afrikaans University), involving media from eight South African Water Treatment Plants, varying between sand and sand-anthracite combinations and raw water types from eutrophic through turbid to low-turbidity waters. Five states of cleanliness and four fractions of specific deposit were identified relating to in-situ washing, column washing, cylinder inversion and acid-immersion techniques. These were measured and the results compared to acceptable limits for specific deposit, as determined in previous studies, though expressed in kg/m3. These values were used to determine the state of the filters. In order to gain greater insight into the composition of the specific deposits stripped from the media, a four-point characterisation step was introduced for the resultant suspensions based on acid-solubility and volatility. Results showed that a reasonably effective backwash removed a median specific deposit of 0.89 kg/m3. Further washing in a laboratory column removed a median specific deposit of 1.34 kg/m3. Media subjected to a standardised cylinder inversion procedure removed a median specific deposit of 2.41 kg/m3. Immersion in a strong acid removed a median specific deposit of 35.2 kg/m3. The four-point characterization step showed that the soluble-volatile fraction was consistently small in relation to the other fractions. The organic fraction was quite high at the RG treatment plant and the soluble-non-volatile fraction was particularly high at the BK treatment plant.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Van Staden, S. J. , Haarhoff, J.
- Date: 2010
- Subjects: Water - Purification , Water treatment plants
- Language: English
- Type: Conference proceedings
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10210/16461 , uj:15775 , Van Staden, S.J. & Haarhoff, J. 2010. How can filter cleanliness be determined? In: Proceedings of the 11th WaterNet/WARFSA/GWP-SA Symposium, 27-29 October 2010, Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe:676-690
- Description: Abstract: It is general believed that a sand filter starts its life with new, perfectly clean media, which becomes gradually clogged with each filtration cycle, eventually getting to a point where either head loss or filtrate quality starts to deteriorate. At this point the backwash cycle is initiated and, through the combined action of air and water, returns the media to its original perfectly clean state. Reality, however, dictates otherwise. Many treatment plants visited a decade or more after commissioning are found to have unacceptably dirty filter sand and backwash systems incapable of returning the filter media to a desired state of cleanliness. In some cases, these problems are common ones encountered in filtration plants but many reasons for media deterioration remain elusive, falling outside of these common problems. The South African conditions of highly eutrophic surface waters at high temperatures exacerbate the problems with dirty filter media as such conditions lead to the formation of biofilm in the filter media, shown to inhibit the effective backwashing of sand and carbon filters A systematic investigation into filter media cleanliness was therefore started in 2002 at the University of Johannesburg (the then Rand Afrikaans University), involving media from eight South African Water Treatment Plants, varying between sand and sand-anthracite combinations and raw water types from eutrophic through turbid to low-turbidity waters. Five states of cleanliness and four fractions of specific deposit were identified relating to in-situ washing, column washing, cylinder inversion and acid-immersion techniques. These were measured and the results compared to acceptable limits for specific deposit, as determined in previous studies, though expressed in kg/m3. These values were used to determine the state of the filters. In order to gain greater insight into the composition of the specific deposits stripped from the media, a four-point characterisation step was introduced for the resultant suspensions based on acid-solubility and volatility. Results showed that a reasonably effective backwash removed a median specific deposit of 0.89 kg/m3. Further washing in a laboratory column removed a median specific deposit of 1.34 kg/m3. Media subjected to a standardised cylinder inversion procedure removed a median specific deposit of 2.41 kg/m3. Immersion in a strong acid removed a median specific deposit of 35.2 kg/m3. The four-point characterization step showed that the soluble-volatile fraction was consistently small in relation to the other fractions. The organic fraction was quite high at the RG treatment plant and the soluble-non-volatile fraction was particularly high at the BK treatment plant.
- Full Text:
A practical course on filter assessment for water treatment plant operators
- Van Staden, S.J., Haarhoff, J.
- Authors: Van Staden, S.J. , Haarhoff, J.
- Date: 2011
- Subjects: Water - Purification - Membrane filtration , Water treatment plants , Plant operators, Training of
- Language: English
- Type: Conference proceedings
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10210/17261 , uj:15863 , Van Staden, S.J. & Haarhoff, J. (2011) A practical course on filter assessment for water treatment plant operators. In: Proceedings of the 2nd Young Water Professionals of Southern Africa Conference, Pretoria, South Africa, 4-5 July 2011, 5 p.
- Description: Abstract Training of treatment plant operators in South Africa faces some special problems. First, the political changes in the past decade led to a complete restructuring of local government. An integral part of the ongoing restructuring process is an aggressive programme for black economic empowerment. This brought many new faces into local government without the practical experience to which the water industry is accustomed, coupled with a massive displacement of technical skills from the sector. From 1989, the number of civil engineering professionals (engineers, technologists, technicians) has dwindled from 22 / 100000 of the population to 3 / 100000 of the population in 2007 (Lawless, 2007). Second, the Water Services Act (1997) of South Africa shifted the burden of water supply squarely on the shoulders of district and local municipalities. The dilution of skills, coupled with increasing responsibility, makes it clear that the water sector in South Africa will have to train itself out of this predicament. As a result, the quality and focus of training programmes, especially at the operator level, is receiving renewed attention. This paper shares the experience of the development and refinement of a training course for filter assessment for operators over the past eight years.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Van Staden, S.J. , Haarhoff, J.
- Date: 2011
- Subjects: Water - Purification - Membrane filtration , Water treatment plants , Plant operators, Training of
- Language: English
- Type: Conference proceedings
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10210/17261 , uj:15863 , Van Staden, S.J. & Haarhoff, J. (2011) A practical course on filter assessment for water treatment plant operators. In: Proceedings of the 2nd Young Water Professionals of Southern Africa Conference, Pretoria, South Africa, 4-5 July 2011, 5 p.
- Description: Abstract Training of treatment plant operators in South Africa faces some special problems. First, the political changes in the past decade led to a complete restructuring of local government. An integral part of the ongoing restructuring process is an aggressive programme for black economic empowerment. This brought many new faces into local government without the practical experience to which the water industry is accustomed, coupled with a massive displacement of technical skills from the sector. From 1989, the number of civil engineering professionals (engineers, technologists, technicians) has dwindled from 22 / 100000 of the population to 3 / 100000 of the population in 2007 (Lawless, 2007). Second, the Water Services Act (1997) of South Africa shifted the burden of water supply squarely on the shoulders of district and local municipalities. The dilution of skills, coupled with increasing responsibility, makes it clear that the water sector in South Africa will have to train itself out of this predicament. As a result, the quality and focus of training programmes, especially at the operator level, is receiving renewed attention. This paper shares the experience of the development and refinement of a training course for filter assessment for operators over the past eight years.
- Full Text:
A practical course on filter assessment for water treatment plant operators
- Van Staden, S. J., Haarhoff, J.
- Authors: Van Staden, S. J. , Haarhoff, J.
- Date: 2012
- Subjects: Water purification - Membrane filtration , Water treatment plants
- Language: English
- Type: Article
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10210/23198 , uj:16219 , Citation: Van Staden, S.J. and Haarhoff, J. 2012. A practical course on filter assessment for water treatment plant operators. Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 2(3):200-204.
- Description: Please refer to full text to view abstract Please refer to full text to view abstract
- Full Text:
- Authors: Van Staden, S. J. , Haarhoff, J.
- Date: 2012
- Subjects: Water purification - Membrane filtration , Water treatment plants
- Language: English
- Type: Article
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10210/23198 , uj:16219 , Citation: Van Staden, S.J. and Haarhoff, J. 2012. A practical course on filter assessment for water treatment plant operators. Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 2(3):200-204.
- Description: Please refer to full text to view abstract Please refer to full text to view abstract
- Full Text:
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