A histology-based health assessment of selected fish species from two rivers in the Kruger National Park
- Authors: Smith, Warren Clifford
- Date: 2012-08-20
- Subjects: Kruger National Park (South Africa) , Freshwater fishes - Histology , Water pollution , River pollution
- Type: Thesis
- Identifier: uj:2712 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/6153
- Description: M.Sc. , The Olifants- and Luvuvhu rivers both flow through the Kruger National Park (KNP). The Olifants River (OR) is a major tributary of the Limpopo River with water quality being less than desirable due to high concentrations of pollutants as a result of the activities in the upper catchment. The crocodile population of the river declined from 1000 in 2008 to 347 in 2009 due to pansteatitis. Labeobarbus marequensis in the upper catchment also showed symptoms of the disease (Templehoff, 2010). This raised concern about the health of the fish in the OR, particularly in the section flowing through the KNP. The Luvuvhu River (LR) is also a tributary of the Limpopo River with main land uses in the catchment being agriculture, mining and communal lands. Of concern is the finding of DDT residues in water, sediment, and domestic and indigenous biota upstream of the sites sampled in this study (Barnhoorn et al., 2009) which raised concerns about the health of fish in the lower reaches of the river flowing through the KNP. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess the health status of [9] selected fish species from the OR and LR in the KNP using a histology-based health assessment protocol (HBHA). The species selected for this study included Hydrocynus vittatus, Labeobarbus marequensis, Labeo cylindricus and Labeo rosae. The OR was sampled in September 2009 and May 2010 while the LR was sampled in November 2009 and April 2010. A necropsy was done to determine if there were any internal or external macroscopic alterations with any alterations noted on a score sheet. Blood was taken for haematocrit (Hct), leukocrit (Lct) and total plasma protein (TP) determination. As part of the HBHA, a necropsy-based health assessment index (HAI) was applied using a modified protocol of Adams et al. (1993) where the necropsy and blood parameters were used to calculate the mean and sum HAI for the different species sampled on each sampling trip. Biometric indices including the condition factor, hepatosomatic index, splenosomatic index and the gonadosomatic index were calculated. Age was determined using otoliths for tigerfish and scales for the other species. Samples of selected organs (liver, kidney, gill, testes or ovaries) were taken for histological analysis. Microscope slides were assessed qualitatively to identify any histological alterations present. These results were semi-quantitatively assessed according to the protocol of Van Dyk et al. (2009a) from which an organ index and fish index were calculated. The organ index is an indication of the number and severity of histological alterations in a particular organ of a selected species. The organ indices were classed according to the classes of Van Dyk et al. (2009a) with Class 1 (<10) being tissue with slight histological alterations; Class 2 (10-25) being tissue with moderate histological alterations. The fish index is a sum of all of the organ indices for any given fish sampled.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Smith, Warren Clifford
- Date: 2012-08-20
- Subjects: Kruger National Park (South Africa) , Freshwater fishes - Histology , Water pollution , River pollution
- Type: Thesis
- Identifier: uj:2712 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/6153
- Description: M.Sc. , The Olifants- and Luvuvhu rivers both flow through the Kruger National Park (KNP). The Olifants River (OR) is a major tributary of the Limpopo River with water quality being less than desirable due to high concentrations of pollutants as a result of the activities in the upper catchment. The crocodile population of the river declined from 1000 in 2008 to 347 in 2009 due to pansteatitis. Labeobarbus marequensis in the upper catchment also showed symptoms of the disease (Templehoff, 2010). This raised concern about the health of the fish in the OR, particularly in the section flowing through the KNP. The Luvuvhu River (LR) is also a tributary of the Limpopo River with main land uses in the catchment being agriculture, mining and communal lands. Of concern is the finding of DDT residues in water, sediment, and domestic and indigenous biota upstream of the sites sampled in this study (Barnhoorn et al., 2009) which raised concerns about the health of fish in the lower reaches of the river flowing through the KNP. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess the health status of [9] selected fish species from the OR and LR in the KNP using a histology-based health assessment protocol (HBHA). The species selected for this study included Hydrocynus vittatus, Labeobarbus marequensis, Labeo cylindricus and Labeo rosae. The OR was sampled in September 2009 and May 2010 while the LR was sampled in November 2009 and April 2010. A necropsy was done to determine if there were any internal or external macroscopic alterations with any alterations noted on a score sheet. Blood was taken for haematocrit (Hct), leukocrit (Lct) and total plasma protein (TP) determination. As part of the HBHA, a necropsy-based health assessment index (HAI) was applied using a modified protocol of Adams et al. (1993) where the necropsy and blood parameters were used to calculate the mean and sum HAI for the different species sampled on each sampling trip. Biometric indices including the condition factor, hepatosomatic index, splenosomatic index and the gonadosomatic index were calculated. Age was determined using otoliths for tigerfish and scales for the other species. Samples of selected organs (liver, kidney, gill, testes or ovaries) were taken for histological analysis. Microscope slides were assessed qualitatively to identify any histological alterations present. These results were semi-quantitatively assessed according to the protocol of Van Dyk et al. (2009a) from which an organ index and fish index were calculated. The organ index is an indication of the number and severity of histological alterations in a particular organ of a selected species. The organ indices were classed according to the classes of Van Dyk et al. (2009a) with Class 1 (<10) being tissue with slight histological alterations; Class 2 (10-25) being tissue with moderate histological alterations. The fish index is a sum of all of the organ indices for any given fish sampled.
- Full Text:
An assessment of the health-related microbiological water quality of the Blesbok Spruit
- Authors: Swanepoel, Cheryl Lynne
- Date: 2012-05-29
- Subjects: Water quality , Blesbok Spruit (South Africa) , Water pollution , Wetlands
- Type: Thesis
- Identifier: uj:2274 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/4736
- Description: M.Tech. , South Africa is a water scarce country. The characteristic water pollution problems associated with both developing and developed economies are evident. Indicator organisms have been enumerated from samples collected from the Blesbok Spruit (Gauteng Province) over one year. Standard membrane filtration techniques were used followed by cultivation of E. coli and enterococcus on selective agars. Rainfall data was collected to enable a determination of differences, between “wet” and “dry” sampling runs. Descriptive statistics applied to the data include the calculation of the geometric mean for each sampling run and the geometric mean per sampling site in both wet and dry conditions. The Mann- Whitney Rank Sum Test and Kruskal-Wallis One way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were used to compare data sets. The capacity of the Blesbok Spruit, containing wetland areas, to assimilate the microbiological load was more effective than that of the Renoster Spruit (Free State Province) which does not contain distinctive wetland areas. The risk of infection has been determined by comparing the levels of E. coli and enterococcus to a set of site-specific guidelines. The water is not suitable for drinking or domestic purposes and full contact recreation will pose a risk of infection to users. The lower Blesbok Spruit has the poorest water quality and this water is unsuitable for livestock watering being only suitable for the irrigation of crops. The effects of diffuse pollution on the health related microbiological water quality need to be considered in the management of this sub-catchment.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Swanepoel, Cheryl Lynne
- Date: 2012-05-29
- Subjects: Water quality , Blesbok Spruit (South Africa) , Water pollution , Wetlands
- Type: Thesis
- Identifier: uj:2274 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/4736
- Description: M.Tech. , South Africa is a water scarce country. The characteristic water pollution problems associated with both developing and developed economies are evident. Indicator organisms have been enumerated from samples collected from the Blesbok Spruit (Gauteng Province) over one year. Standard membrane filtration techniques were used followed by cultivation of E. coli and enterococcus on selective agars. Rainfall data was collected to enable a determination of differences, between “wet” and “dry” sampling runs. Descriptive statistics applied to the data include the calculation of the geometric mean for each sampling run and the geometric mean per sampling site in both wet and dry conditions. The Mann- Whitney Rank Sum Test and Kruskal-Wallis One way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were used to compare data sets. The capacity of the Blesbok Spruit, containing wetland areas, to assimilate the microbiological load was more effective than that of the Renoster Spruit (Free State Province) which does not contain distinctive wetland areas. The risk of infection has been determined by comparing the levels of E. coli and enterococcus to a set of site-specific guidelines. The water is not suitable for drinking or domestic purposes and full contact recreation will pose a risk of infection to users. The lower Blesbok Spruit has the poorest water quality and this water is unsuitable for livestock watering being only suitable for the irrigation of crops. The effects of diffuse pollution on the health related microbiological water quality need to be considered in the management of this sub-catchment.
- Full Text:
An ecotoxicological investigation into the ecological integrity of a segment of the Elands River, Mpumalanga, South Africa
- Authors: O'Brien, Gordon Craig
- Date: 2008-10-16T05:49:25Z
- Subjects: Water pollution , Mpumalanga (South Africa) , Elands River (South Africa)
- Type: Thesis
- Identifier: uj:12376 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/1215
- Description: M.Sc. , The Elands River (Incomati System, Mpumalanga) is a biologically diverse and ecologically important riverine system. In terms of the South African National Water Law, the river can be regarded as an aquatic resource, with social, ecological and economical benefits to the local population and the environment itself. The ecological status of the system has, however been questioned, whereby concerns relating to the water quality and the ecological health of the Elands River has been raised. Initially, the concerns focused on an accidental industrial spill of “black liquor” into the Elands River by the Paper Mill at Ngodwana. Subsequently the groundwater in the vicinity of the Ngodwana Mill has possibly been contaminated with chlorides. The contaminated subsurface water has been discharged into the river, and is suspected to be impacting, primarily in the form of increased salinity, the integrity of the Elands River. This study assessed the ecological integrity of a segment of the Elands River between Waterval- Boven and the confluence of the Elands River with the Crocodile River. In addition this study investigated the possibility that increased chloride-based salinity levels were the factors affecting the ecological integrity of the Elands River. The study is divided into three main components. The environmental component involves the assessment of the surface water quality and flow, physical profile, current aquatic habitat status and a biotic integrity assessment of the Elands River and the Crocodile River directly above and below the confluence with the Elands River. An ecotoxicological component incorporated a bioassay of selected chloride-based salts, using daphnids and selected fish species as test organisms. Finally an Ecological Risk Assessment was carried out to evaluate the likelihood that adverse effects were impacting on the Elands River, as a result of the activities of the Ngodwana Mill. The water quality was assessed by implementing the methodology for the determination of present ecological status: water quality, as part of the preliminary determination of the ecological reserve. Historical water quality data were obtained from the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry and from Sappi. During the study, current water quality parameters were obtained from Sappi and parameters were independently sampled. Analyses of the water quality indicated that the Elands River has been subjected to eutrophication and increased levels of chloride-based salinity. Habitat integrity was analysed by constructing two dimensional site transects of the riparian zone and instream channel. Additional habitat indices, the Integrated Habitat Assessment System, the Habitat Cover Ratings and the Site Habitat Integrity system were applied. Habitat results indicate that the in stream habitats of the Elands River are abundant and linked to the flow regime. Additionally the assessments indicated that the habitat makeup of the Elands and Crocodile rivers is primarily riffle, run and rapids habitats, which facilitate the requirements of numerous invertebrate and vertebrate aquatic communities. Biotic assessments studied the integrity of the vegetation, invertebrates and ichthyofaunal communities. The integrity of the vegetation community was assessed by implementing the Riparian Vegetation Index. Results indicated that the riparian vegetation community was modified in varying degrees due to the encroachment of exotic and terrestrial vegetation elements and by anthropogenic activities. The integrity of the invertebrate communities were assessed by implementing the South African Scoring System. Results indicated that the integrity of the invertebrate community was exceptionally high in the vicinity of Hemlock. The invertebrate community structure changed however in areas were a water quality contamination was observed. The ichthyofaunal attributes were assessed by implementing the Fish Assemblages Integrity Index and the Sensitivity Weighted Index of Biotic Integrity. The ichthyofauna assessment revealed two aspects that have conservation importance. These aspects are the occurrence of an endangered species, Chiloglanis bifurcus, and a potentially geologically isolated subspecies of Labeo-barbus polylepis. The index results indicated that the ichthyofauna community structure followed similar trends to the invertebrates by responding to the mentioned stressors. Toxicological assessments were carried out using the standard Daphnid 48-hour LC50 and fish 96-hour LC50 tests. The species selected for the tests were the currently recognized test organisms (Daphnia pulex and Poecilia reticulata) in South Africa. Additional fish species were included in the tests, these species were Oreochromis mossambicus and Clarias gariepinus. Chloride-based salts were selected as the toxicants; these included calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, potassium chloride and sodium chloride. The tests were carried out under controlled conditions using standardised protocols. Results indicated that in excess, chloride-based salinity is toxic to invertebrate and vertebrate organisms. Additionally findings indicated that potassium chloride was the most toxic and sodium chloride the least toxic of the salts. Calcium chloride was selected as the most representative salt to represent salinity. The Ecological Risk Assessment was implemented after international and national frameworks were considered. The assessment was primarily based on the results obtained from the integrity assessment of the Elands and Crocodile rivers. Results obtained indicated that the localised biological template of the Elands River, in the vicinity of the Ngodwana Mill is moderately impacted by the activities of the Mill. The impact is primarily associated with the increased salinity content of the Elands River. Effects of the stressors were modified in relation to a dilution effect. Risks posed by the stressors are deemed to be restricted to a localised area, and it is highly improbable that the stressors would result in the loss of the biotic diversity and thus the ecosystem of the Elands River as a whole. Should the current situation prevail, the intensity and spatial extent or distribution of the stressor could increase. , Dr. V. Wepener
- Full Text:
- Authors: O'Brien, Gordon Craig
- Date: 2008-10-16T05:49:25Z
- Subjects: Water pollution , Mpumalanga (South Africa) , Elands River (South Africa)
- Type: Thesis
- Identifier: uj:12376 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/1215
- Description: M.Sc. , The Elands River (Incomati System, Mpumalanga) is a biologically diverse and ecologically important riverine system. In terms of the South African National Water Law, the river can be regarded as an aquatic resource, with social, ecological and economical benefits to the local population and the environment itself. The ecological status of the system has, however been questioned, whereby concerns relating to the water quality and the ecological health of the Elands River has been raised. Initially, the concerns focused on an accidental industrial spill of “black liquor” into the Elands River by the Paper Mill at Ngodwana. Subsequently the groundwater in the vicinity of the Ngodwana Mill has possibly been contaminated with chlorides. The contaminated subsurface water has been discharged into the river, and is suspected to be impacting, primarily in the form of increased salinity, the integrity of the Elands River. This study assessed the ecological integrity of a segment of the Elands River between Waterval- Boven and the confluence of the Elands River with the Crocodile River. In addition this study investigated the possibility that increased chloride-based salinity levels were the factors affecting the ecological integrity of the Elands River. The study is divided into three main components. The environmental component involves the assessment of the surface water quality and flow, physical profile, current aquatic habitat status and a biotic integrity assessment of the Elands River and the Crocodile River directly above and below the confluence with the Elands River. An ecotoxicological component incorporated a bioassay of selected chloride-based salts, using daphnids and selected fish species as test organisms. Finally an Ecological Risk Assessment was carried out to evaluate the likelihood that adverse effects were impacting on the Elands River, as a result of the activities of the Ngodwana Mill. The water quality was assessed by implementing the methodology for the determination of present ecological status: water quality, as part of the preliminary determination of the ecological reserve. Historical water quality data were obtained from the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry and from Sappi. During the study, current water quality parameters were obtained from Sappi and parameters were independently sampled. Analyses of the water quality indicated that the Elands River has been subjected to eutrophication and increased levels of chloride-based salinity. Habitat integrity was analysed by constructing two dimensional site transects of the riparian zone and instream channel. Additional habitat indices, the Integrated Habitat Assessment System, the Habitat Cover Ratings and the Site Habitat Integrity system were applied. Habitat results indicate that the in stream habitats of the Elands River are abundant and linked to the flow regime. Additionally the assessments indicated that the habitat makeup of the Elands and Crocodile rivers is primarily riffle, run and rapids habitats, which facilitate the requirements of numerous invertebrate and vertebrate aquatic communities. Biotic assessments studied the integrity of the vegetation, invertebrates and ichthyofaunal communities. The integrity of the vegetation community was assessed by implementing the Riparian Vegetation Index. Results indicated that the riparian vegetation community was modified in varying degrees due to the encroachment of exotic and terrestrial vegetation elements and by anthropogenic activities. The integrity of the invertebrate communities were assessed by implementing the South African Scoring System. Results indicated that the integrity of the invertebrate community was exceptionally high in the vicinity of Hemlock. The invertebrate community structure changed however in areas were a water quality contamination was observed. The ichthyofaunal attributes were assessed by implementing the Fish Assemblages Integrity Index and the Sensitivity Weighted Index of Biotic Integrity. The ichthyofauna assessment revealed two aspects that have conservation importance. These aspects are the occurrence of an endangered species, Chiloglanis bifurcus, and a potentially geologically isolated subspecies of Labeo-barbus polylepis. The index results indicated that the ichthyofauna community structure followed similar trends to the invertebrates by responding to the mentioned stressors. Toxicological assessments were carried out using the standard Daphnid 48-hour LC50 and fish 96-hour LC50 tests. The species selected for the tests were the currently recognized test organisms (Daphnia pulex and Poecilia reticulata) in South Africa. Additional fish species were included in the tests, these species were Oreochromis mossambicus and Clarias gariepinus. Chloride-based salts were selected as the toxicants; these included calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, potassium chloride and sodium chloride. The tests were carried out under controlled conditions using standardised protocols. Results indicated that in excess, chloride-based salinity is toxic to invertebrate and vertebrate organisms. Additionally findings indicated that potassium chloride was the most toxic and sodium chloride the least toxic of the salts. Calcium chloride was selected as the most representative salt to represent salinity. The Ecological Risk Assessment was implemented after international and national frameworks were considered. The assessment was primarily based on the results obtained from the integrity assessment of the Elands and Crocodile rivers. Results obtained indicated that the localised biological template of the Elands River, in the vicinity of the Ngodwana Mill is moderately impacted by the activities of the Mill. The impact is primarily associated with the increased salinity content of the Elands River. Effects of the stressors were modified in relation to a dilution effect. Risks posed by the stressors are deemed to be restricted to a localised area, and it is highly improbable that the stressors would result in the loss of the biotic diversity and thus the ecosystem of the Elands River as a whole. Should the current situation prevail, the intensity and spatial extent or distribution of the stressor could increase. , Dr. V. Wepener
- Full Text:
Detection of Vibrio cholerae and Vibrio parahaemolyticus by molecular and culture methods from source water to household container-stored water at the point-of-use in rural Vhembe communities in South Africa
- Authors: Ntema, Vusi McMillan
- Date: 2010-03-25T06:43:37Z
- Subjects: Vibrio cholerae , Pathogenic bacteria , Water pollution
- Type: Thesis
- Identifier: uj:6698 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/3100
- Description: M.Tech. , With the recent cholera outbreak in Zimbabwe and the outbreak taking a sub-regional dimension with cholera cases being reported from neighbouring countries like Botswana and South Africa, there was a need to monitor drinking water from environmental water sources as well as household water-storage containers at the point-of-use in rural communities. Although conventional culture-based microbiological methods for the identification of Vibrio species from environmental water samples are reliable, they require several days to complete (Khan and Cerniglia, 1994). Culture dependent and culture independent methods for the detection of Vibrio cholerae and Vibrio parahaemolyticus from water samples were optimised during the current study. With these methods, the occurrence and distribution of V. cholerae and V. parahaemolyticus in source waters as well as in household container stored-waters at the point-of-use in the Nwanedi Catchment, was determined. The culture based approach analyses involved the enrichment of water samples in alkaline peptone water (APW) for 18 hours at 37°C followed by culture on selective thiosulfate-citrate-bile salts-sucrose (TCBS) agar. Typical colonies on TCBS agar were confirmed using the API 20NE as well as the two multiplex polymerase chain reactions (m-PCR). The culture independent PCR approach was done by filtering 100 ml of the water sample onto polycarbonate membranes followed by DNA extraction from the bacteria captured on the membranes using an adaptation of the in-house DNA extraction method used in the laboratory. This DNA was used as template for the m-PCR’s. For the culture based PCR detection, 100 ml water was filtered onto nitrocellulose membranes followed by 18 hours enrichment in APW. DNA was then extracted from the enrichment broth and subsequently used as template for the m-PCR’s. All water samples were analysed with all three methods to compare the results and determine the most effective method for the detection of the two-selected Vibrio species present in water samples. PCR analyses were performed using two m-PCR assays targeting the SodB (V. cholerae species), FlaE (V. parahaemolyticus species) and 16S rRNA (Vibrio and Enterobacteriacea species) genes (Multiplex 1) and the V. cholerae O1 and V. cholerae O139 rfb genes, ctxA (cholera toxin) gene and 16S rRNA gene (Multiplex 2). The 16S rRNA primers were included in the Multiplex PCR’s as an internal control. The m-PCR assays were 100% specific for total and toxigenic V. cholerae and total V. parahaemolyticus when using target bacteria and various other non-target bacteria. The m-PCR assays when coupled with an 18 hours enrichment step could detect as few as 4-10 V. cholerae and V. parahaemolyticus cells in pure cultures as well as in spiked environmental water samples. Fifty water-storage containers and 56 environmental water samples (river, spring and borehole) from rural households in the Vhembe district of the Limpopo Province of South Africa were tested for the presence of selected Vibrio’s, using (1) the standard culture based approach, (2) PCR detection without enrichment and (3) PCR with a brief pre-enrichment. Container water samples were collected before [referred to as free volume (FV) of water] and after dislodging of the biofilm [referred to as dislodged biofilm (BD)] from the inner sidewalls of containers. Of the samples analysed with the standard cultured based technique combined with colony confirmation using m-PCR 1, 34 (12.8%) tested positive for the presence of V. cholerae (SodB gene), 2 (1.3%) for the presence of V. parahaemolyticus (FlaE gene) and all the samples tested positive for the 16S rRNA gene. In contrast, only 1 (0.6%) tested positive for the presence of V. cholerae and 0 (0%) for the presence of V. parahaemolyticus when the isolates were confirmed with API 20NE. With the culture dependant PCR method, 65 (41.7%) of the samples tested positive for the presence of V. cholerae, 3 (1.9%) for the presence of V. parahaemolyticus and all the samples tested positive for the 16S rRNA gene. Seventeen (10.9%) of the samples tested positive for the presence of V. cholerae (SodB) and 16S rRNA genes, 0 (0%) for the presence of V. parahaemolyticus (FlaE gene) with the culture independent direct PCR detection protocol. All the samples that tested positive for V. cholerae with any of the three methods were tested for the presence of toxigenic V. cholerae species with the second multiplex PCR. Six of the source water samples tested positive for V. cholerae O1 as well as the cholera toxin genes. Of the 56 source water samples, 14 (25%) were positive for V. cholerae and 0 (0%) were positive for V. parahaemolyticus with one or all of the methods. Six (10.7%) of the V. cholerae positive samples tested positive for V. cholerae O1 rfb gene, and ctxA gene (cholera toxin). Thirty (60%) of the 50 FV and 28 (56%) of the DB water samples tested positive for V. cholerae, and 3 (6%) of the FV and 0 (0%) of the DB samples tested positive for V. parahaemolyticus with one or all of the methods. None of the positive V. cholerae samples tested positive for the presence of toxigenic V. cholerae. The results presented suggest that the use of culture-based techniques alone is inadequate for detection of selected Vibrio’s in the environmental water samples and that such techniques are not enough to guarantee satisfactory protection of human health. The combination of filtration, enrichment, DNA extraction and m-PCR method provide a sensitive and specific method for the detection of V. cholerae and V. parahaemolyticus in environmental water samples. This method proved to be the most effective for detection and identification of selected Vibrio’s when compared to the culture based method and PCR without enrichment method. The inclusion of an enrichment period allows for the detection of culturable bacteria which is crucial as PCR detection does not give indications on the viability of the detected material. The enrichment period will also dilute any inhibitors for the m-PCR’s that may be present. Detection of V. cholerae and V. parahaemolyticus in the source water used by the population and in the water-storage containers indicates possible seeding of containers with Vibrio species from the source water. Furthermore, the detection of these organisms in DB samples indicates that these organisms attach to containers’ inner sidewalls, forming biofilms, further sustaining their occurrence and proliferation. The detection of V. cholerae and V. parahaemolyticus in household water-storage containers certainly places the consumers at risk of infection of diseases caused by these organisms.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Ntema, Vusi McMillan
- Date: 2010-03-25T06:43:37Z
- Subjects: Vibrio cholerae , Pathogenic bacteria , Water pollution
- Type: Thesis
- Identifier: uj:6698 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/3100
- Description: M.Tech. , With the recent cholera outbreak in Zimbabwe and the outbreak taking a sub-regional dimension with cholera cases being reported from neighbouring countries like Botswana and South Africa, there was a need to monitor drinking water from environmental water sources as well as household water-storage containers at the point-of-use in rural communities. Although conventional culture-based microbiological methods for the identification of Vibrio species from environmental water samples are reliable, they require several days to complete (Khan and Cerniglia, 1994). Culture dependent and culture independent methods for the detection of Vibrio cholerae and Vibrio parahaemolyticus from water samples were optimised during the current study. With these methods, the occurrence and distribution of V. cholerae and V. parahaemolyticus in source waters as well as in household container stored-waters at the point-of-use in the Nwanedi Catchment, was determined. The culture based approach analyses involved the enrichment of water samples in alkaline peptone water (APW) for 18 hours at 37°C followed by culture on selective thiosulfate-citrate-bile salts-sucrose (TCBS) agar. Typical colonies on TCBS agar were confirmed using the API 20NE as well as the two multiplex polymerase chain reactions (m-PCR). The culture independent PCR approach was done by filtering 100 ml of the water sample onto polycarbonate membranes followed by DNA extraction from the bacteria captured on the membranes using an adaptation of the in-house DNA extraction method used in the laboratory. This DNA was used as template for the m-PCR’s. For the culture based PCR detection, 100 ml water was filtered onto nitrocellulose membranes followed by 18 hours enrichment in APW. DNA was then extracted from the enrichment broth and subsequently used as template for the m-PCR’s. All water samples were analysed with all three methods to compare the results and determine the most effective method for the detection of the two-selected Vibrio species present in water samples. PCR analyses were performed using two m-PCR assays targeting the SodB (V. cholerae species), FlaE (V. parahaemolyticus species) and 16S rRNA (Vibrio and Enterobacteriacea species) genes (Multiplex 1) and the V. cholerae O1 and V. cholerae O139 rfb genes, ctxA (cholera toxin) gene and 16S rRNA gene (Multiplex 2). The 16S rRNA primers were included in the Multiplex PCR’s as an internal control. The m-PCR assays were 100% specific for total and toxigenic V. cholerae and total V. parahaemolyticus when using target bacteria and various other non-target bacteria. The m-PCR assays when coupled with an 18 hours enrichment step could detect as few as 4-10 V. cholerae and V. parahaemolyticus cells in pure cultures as well as in spiked environmental water samples. Fifty water-storage containers and 56 environmental water samples (river, spring and borehole) from rural households in the Vhembe district of the Limpopo Province of South Africa were tested for the presence of selected Vibrio’s, using (1) the standard culture based approach, (2) PCR detection without enrichment and (3) PCR with a brief pre-enrichment. Container water samples were collected before [referred to as free volume (FV) of water] and after dislodging of the biofilm [referred to as dislodged biofilm (BD)] from the inner sidewalls of containers. Of the samples analysed with the standard cultured based technique combined with colony confirmation using m-PCR 1, 34 (12.8%) tested positive for the presence of V. cholerae (SodB gene), 2 (1.3%) for the presence of V. parahaemolyticus (FlaE gene) and all the samples tested positive for the 16S rRNA gene. In contrast, only 1 (0.6%) tested positive for the presence of V. cholerae and 0 (0%) for the presence of V. parahaemolyticus when the isolates were confirmed with API 20NE. With the culture dependant PCR method, 65 (41.7%) of the samples tested positive for the presence of V. cholerae, 3 (1.9%) for the presence of V. parahaemolyticus and all the samples tested positive for the 16S rRNA gene. Seventeen (10.9%) of the samples tested positive for the presence of V. cholerae (SodB) and 16S rRNA genes, 0 (0%) for the presence of V. parahaemolyticus (FlaE gene) with the culture independent direct PCR detection protocol. All the samples that tested positive for V. cholerae with any of the three methods were tested for the presence of toxigenic V. cholerae species with the second multiplex PCR. Six of the source water samples tested positive for V. cholerae O1 as well as the cholera toxin genes. Of the 56 source water samples, 14 (25%) were positive for V. cholerae and 0 (0%) were positive for V. parahaemolyticus with one or all of the methods. Six (10.7%) of the V. cholerae positive samples tested positive for V. cholerae O1 rfb gene, and ctxA gene (cholera toxin). Thirty (60%) of the 50 FV and 28 (56%) of the DB water samples tested positive for V. cholerae, and 3 (6%) of the FV and 0 (0%) of the DB samples tested positive for V. parahaemolyticus with one or all of the methods. None of the positive V. cholerae samples tested positive for the presence of toxigenic V. cholerae. The results presented suggest that the use of culture-based techniques alone is inadequate for detection of selected Vibrio’s in the environmental water samples and that such techniques are not enough to guarantee satisfactory protection of human health. The combination of filtration, enrichment, DNA extraction and m-PCR method provide a sensitive and specific method for the detection of V. cholerae and V. parahaemolyticus in environmental water samples. This method proved to be the most effective for detection and identification of selected Vibrio’s when compared to the culture based method and PCR without enrichment method. The inclusion of an enrichment period allows for the detection of culturable bacteria which is crucial as PCR detection does not give indications on the viability of the detected material. The enrichment period will also dilute any inhibitors for the m-PCR’s that may be present. Detection of V. cholerae and V. parahaemolyticus in the source water used by the population and in the water-storage containers indicates possible seeding of containers with Vibrio species from the source water. Furthermore, the detection of these organisms in DB samples indicates that these organisms attach to containers’ inner sidewalls, forming biofilms, further sustaining their occurrence and proliferation. The detection of V. cholerae and V. parahaemolyticus in household water-storage containers certainly places the consumers at risk of infection of diseases caused by these organisms.
- Full Text:
Diatom, macroinvertebrate and Riparian vegetation community structure responses in agriculturally impacted rivers
- Authors: Walsh, Gina
- Date: 2010-03-15T06:33:01Z
- Subjects: Riparian ecology , Water quality biological assessment , Water pollution , Crocodile River (South Africa)
- Type: Mini-Dissertation
- Identifier: uj:6676 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/3080
- Description: M.Sc. , Pesticides and fertilizers, while allowing increases in food production, also have the ability to find their way into aquatic systems. Irrespective of their route of entry into an aquatic ecosystem, they may affect aquatic biota by influencing survival, growth and reproduction. Secondary effects may occur in which populations of organisms are impacted due to a reduction or elimination of pollution-susceptible species which results in a disturbance of biological processes and interactions due to water quality impacts associated with agricultural practices. Biomonitoring techniques are used to assess the integrity of aquatic ecosystems and provide information on the environmental conditions that have prevailed within a river. Because aquatic organisms are exposed to their environment and all pollutants and toxicants thereof, they will cumulatively reflect the conditions which they are exposed to. This study aims to assess community structure, biotic integrity and feeding traits of aquatic communities at river sites that have varying adjacent land uses. The chosen study area falls within the Crocodile (West) Marico Water Management Area (WMA). Study sites were selected on the Magalies and Crocodile rivers which form Hartbeespoort Dam at their confluence. Agricultural intensity in North West Province is high and irrigation farming tends to be located on the large floodplains associated with the middle Crocodile River. The main economic activity of the WMA occurs in Gauteng, and is generated by the intense urban and industrial activities of northern Johannesburg. These practices ensure that water pollution from agriculture and urban land use is a major problem along segments of the rivers under investigation. Study sites were chosen based on their adjacent land use and consisted of sites related to agricultural, urban and natural activities. Environmental driver components that were assessed included water quality and habitat integrity (IHAS). Biotic response indices were implemented to assess the integrity of diatom (GDI, SPI, BDI, EPI and %PTV), macroinvertebrate (SASS5 and MIRAI) and riparian vegetation (VEGRAI) communities. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) analyses were undertaken on water quality data using Primer version 6 to determine patterns in water quality between sites. Multivariate (CLUSTER, NMDS and RDA) and univariate (Margalef’s index, Shannon-Wiener diversity index and Pielou’s evenness) analyses were performed on macroinvertebrate family data, macroinvertebrate FFG data, diatom species data and riparian vegetation data using Primer version 6 and Canoco version 4.5 in order to elucidate differences in community structure per land use. Results indicated that particular water quality and habitat impacts were present for each land use. Comparison of community structure of diatoms taken from sites with varying land uses showed differences from one another. Relative reference diatom communities comprised of diatom species that had preferences for clean water, whilst community structures of diatoms were modified and showed specific change in relation to agricultural and urban water quality impacts. An increased diversity in air breathing macroinvertebrates was shown at sites with agricultural practices at high flow, where urban sites were differentiated from agricultural sites due to the presence of the Hydropsychidae and Hirudinea families. At low flow macroinvertebrate families making up communities overlapped between land uses. A difference noted at low flow was that the contribution of the Chironomidae was higher at urban sites in comparison to agricultural sites, indicating organic water pollution. The statistical comparison of macroinvertebrate communities, FFGs and riparian vegetation showed that differences between sites with different land uses were not significant. Nonetheless, some differences in refined data were noted for the varying land uses. Considering the macroinvertebrate community make up of the relative reference site, which was comprised of macroinvertebrate families that were more sensitive and showed preferences for higher water quality, community structures of macroinvertebrates were modified and showed change in relation to land use. Macroinvertebrate FFGs indicated that a change in the input of UPOM at agricultural sites, and a change in the presence of FPOM at urban sites were responsible for a shift in the FFG dominance. A difference in riparian integrity was noted between relative reference and test sites, but could not be easily distinguished between test sites with different land uses. Riparian integrity was more predictive of macroinvertebrate FFG structure than actual macroinvertebrate community structure. This indicates that riparian integrity and comparison with biological traits such as FFGs were useful in showing impacts due to organic matter inputs. Overall biotic indices were less useful in distinguishing between urban and agricultural land uses. It appeared that biotic indices masked the changes in the actual taxonomic components, erroneously suggesting that sites with different land uses are similar in terms of ecosystem integrity. It must be noted that integrity indices certainly have an important place in management of aquatic systems, but it appears to be more useful to utilise taxonomic make up and biological traits (in this case of FFGs) to show specific impacts, as these are factors which can be compared across a relatively broad spatial scale. It can be concluded that sites could be separated according to land use based on community structure of diatoms and macroinvertebrates, and biological trait analysis of feeding groups. It was noted that diatom communities were more defined in their response to land use practices in comparison to macroinvertebrate communities.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Walsh, Gina
- Date: 2010-03-15T06:33:01Z
- Subjects: Riparian ecology , Water quality biological assessment , Water pollution , Crocodile River (South Africa)
- Type: Mini-Dissertation
- Identifier: uj:6676 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/3080
- Description: M.Sc. , Pesticides and fertilizers, while allowing increases in food production, also have the ability to find their way into aquatic systems. Irrespective of their route of entry into an aquatic ecosystem, they may affect aquatic biota by influencing survival, growth and reproduction. Secondary effects may occur in which populations of organisms are impacted due to a reduction or elimination of pollution-susceptible species which results in a disturbance of biological processes and interactions due to water quality impacts associated with agricultural practices. Biomonitoring techniques are used to assess the integrity of aquatic ecosystems and provide information on the environmental conditions that have prevailed within a river. Because aquatic organisms are exposed to their environment and all pollutants and toxicants thereof, they will cumulatively reflect the conditions which they are exposed to. This study aims to assess community structure, biotic integrity and feeding traits of aquatic communities at river sites that have varying adjacent land uses. The chosen study area falls within the Crocodile (West) Marico Water Management Area (WMA). Study sites were selected on the Magalies and Crocodile rivers which form Hartbeespoort Dam at their confluence. Agricultural intensity in North West Province is high and irrigation farming tends to be located on the large floodplains associated with the middle Crocodile River. The main economic activity of the WMA occurs in Gauteng, and is generated by the intense urban and industrial activities of northern Johannesburg. These practices ensure that water pollution from agriculture and urban land use is a major problem along segments of the rivers under investigation. Study sites were chosen based on their adjacent land use and consisted of sites related to agricultural, urban and natural activities. Environmental driver components that were assessed included water quality and habitat integrity (IHAS). Biotic response indices were implemented to assess the integrity of diatom (GDI, SPI, BDI, EPI and %PTV), macroinvertebrate (SASS5 and MIRAI) and riparian vegetation (VEGRAI) communities. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) analyses were undertaken on water quality data using Primer version 6 to determine patterns in water quality between sites. Multivariate (CLUSTER, NMDS and RDA) and univariate (Margalef’s index, Shannon-Wiener diversity index and Pielou’s evenness) analyses were performed on macroinvertebrate family data, macroinvertebrate FFG data, diatom species data and riparian vegetation data using Primer version 6 and Canoco version 4.5 in order to elucidate differences in community structure per land use. Results indicated that particular water quality and habitat impacts were present for each land use. Comparison of community structure of diatoms taken from sites with varying land uses showed differences from one another. Relative reference diatom communities comprised of diatom species that had preferences for clean water, whilst community structures of diatoms were modified and showed specific change in relation to agricultural and urban water quality impacts. An increased diversity in air breathing macroinvertebrates was shown at sites with agricultural practices at high flow, where urban sites were differentiated from agricultural sites due to the presence of the Hydropsychidae and Hirudinea families. At low flow macroinvertebrate families making up communities overlapped between land uses. A difference noted at low flow was that the contribution of the Chironomidae was higher at urban sites in comparison to agricultural sites, indicating organic water pollution. The statistical comparison of macroinvertebrate communities, FFGs and riparian vegetation showed that differences between sites with different land uses were not significant. Nonetheless, some differences in refined data were noted for the varying land uses. Considering the macroinvertebrate community make up of the relative reference site, which was comprised of macroinvertebrate families that were more sensitive and showed preferences for higher water quality, community structures of macroinvertebrates were modified and showed change in relation to land use. Macroinvertebrate FFGs indicated that a change in the input of UPOM at agricultural sites, and a change in the presence of FPOM at urban sites were responsible for a shift in the FFG dominance. A difference in riparian integrity was noted between relative reference and test sites, but could not be easily distinguished between test sites with different land uses. Riparian integrity was more predictive of macroinvertebrate FFG structure than actual macroinvertebrate community structure. This indicates that riparian integrity and comparison with biological traits such as FFGs were useful in showing impacts due to organic matter inputs. Overall biotic indices were less useful in distinguishing between urban and agricultural land uses. It appeared that biotic indices masked the changes in the actual taxonomic components, erroneously suggesting that sites with different land uses are similar in terms of ecosystem integrity. It must be noted that integrity indices certainly have an important place in management of aquatic systems, but it appears to be more useful to utilise taxonomic make up and biological traits (in this case of FFGs) to show specific impacts, as these are factors which can be compared across a relatively broad spatial scale. It can be concluded that sites could be separated according to land use based on community structure of diatoms and macroinvertebrates, and biological trait analysis of feeding groups. It was noted that diatom communities were more defined in their response to land use practices in comparison to macroinvertebrate communities.
- Full Text:
Die voorkoms en aard van besoedeling en die effek daarvan op die biologie en waterchemie van die Elsburgspruitsisteem
- Van der Merwe, Christiaan Gideon
- Authors: Van der Merwe, Christiaan Gideon
- Date: 2014-06-11
- Subjects: Water chemistry , Water - Pollution - South Africa - Elsburg Spruit , Water pollution
- Type: Thesis
- Identifier: uj:11501 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/11197
- Description: M.Sc. (Zoology) , An investigation was made into the water chemistry, bacteriology and macroinvertebrate fauna of the Elsburg Spruit and its major tributaries within the municipal boundaries of the City of Germiston. From the results obtained it is clear that the main stream and most of its tributaries are seriously affected by a combination of pollutants. Three types of pollution could largely be distinguished namely fecal bacterial contamination of parts of the stream system which may be related to the possible discharge in the stream of domestic sewage. This in turn may be a major source of organic enrichment of the water of the stream at some places. Acid pollution associated with high mineral loads and heavy metal concentrations which in the latter case could be traced to mining regions and industrial areas in the catchment area of the system. Despite the serious disturbance of stream conditions in the upper region of the Elsburg Spruit some recovery does in fact take place in the lower lying regions of the Elsburg Spruit where the stream flows for several kilometers through a natural vlei area. Certain recommendations are made concerning the location and possible elimination of the major sources of pollution.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Van der Merwe, Christiaan Gideon
- Date: 2014-06-11
- Subjects: Water chemistry , Water - Pollution - South Africa - Elsburg Spruit , Water pollution
- Type: Thesis
- Identifier: uj:11501 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/11197
- Description: M.Sc. (Zoology) , An investigation was made into the water chemistry, bacteriology and macroinvertebrate fauna of the Elsburg Spruit and its major tributaries within the municipal boundaries of the City of Germiston. From the results obtained it is clear that the main stream and most of its tributaries are seriously affected by a combination of pollutants. Three types of pollution could largely be distinguished namely fecal bacterial contamination of parts of the stream system which may be related to the possible discharge in the stream of domestic sewage. This in turn may be a major source of organic enrichment of the water of the stream at some places. Acid pollution associated with high mineral loads and heavy metal concentrations which in the latter case could be traced to mining regions and industrial areas in the catchment area of the system. Despite the serious disturbance of stream conditions in the upper region of the Elsburg Spruit some recovery does in fact take place in the lower lying regions of the Elsburg Spruit where the stream flows for several kilometers through a natural vlei area. Certain recommendations are made concerning the location and possible elimination of the major sources of pollution.
- Full Text:
Ecotoxicological assessment of the impact of paper and pulp effluent on the lower Thukela River catchment, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa and the toxicological assessment of similar effluent from two other mills
- Stryftombolas, Irene Christina
- Authors: Stryftombolas, Irene Christina
- Date: 2010-03-16T07:28:10Z
- Subjects: Water quality , Water pollution , Paper mills toxicology , Pulp mills toxicology , Thukela River catchment (South Africa) , KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa)
- Type: Thesis
- Identifier: uj:6678 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/3082
- Description: M.Sc. , The lower Thukela River catchment supports the highly industrialised Mandini/Sundumbili Industrial Complex, which in turn supports Tugela Rail, a textile factory, a vegetable-oil factory, as well as the Sundumbili Sewerage Treatment works. All of these industries release their wastes into the Mandini River that leads into the lower Thukela River. Another major potential impacting factor on the lower Thukela River is the Sappi Tugela pulp and paper mill that has both abstraction and discharge points in the same region. In 2004 the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry completed a comprehensive Reserve Determination study for the Thukela River. Upon reviewing the results it was clear that many of the variables assessed were of low confidence or there was not sufficient data collected within the region of the Mandini and Thukela River confluence and further downstream (Resource Unit K). Therefore the previous studies were not able to determine the degree to which the industries in the lower Thukela system impacted upon the integrity of the system. The aim of this study was therefore to assess the contributing impacts of the Tugela pulp and paper mill and other industrial activities on the ecological integrity of the lower Thukela River. This was done by through a toxicity assessment of the potential impacts of effluent and wastewater using the Direct Estimation of Ecological Effect Potential (DEEEP) methodologies. The toxicity of pulp and paper effluent from the Thukela mill and the receiving water body was compared to effluents from two other mills (Stanger and Ngodwana), assessing the water quality in relation to the input of different industrial effluents in the lower Thukela River. The general integrity of the lower Thukela River in relation to the input of different industrial effluents was assessed using the Habitat Quality Index (HQI), Habitat Assessment Index (HAI), macroinvertebrate and fish population studies. These studies were integrated to derive the Ecostatus of the lower Thukela River using the Macro-invertebrate and Fish Response Assessment Indices (MIRAI and FAII respectively). The toxicity testing (DEEEP) showed the paper mill effluent in the Mandini River was the least hazardous whilst Ngodwana effluent showed the highest potential to elicit a harmful impact on the receiving water body. The latter effluent displayed the highest LC50 values for the fish and the Daphnia toxicity tests, as well as an extremely high base-pair substitution mutagen activity. Toxicity was also found in algae at 100% raw effluent exposure. Tugela and Stanger mill effluent samples were very similar in their toxicity, except that Stanger effluent showed greater mutagenicity potential with exceptionally high values of revertants. The Tugela effluent samples showed no concerning levels of mutagenicity. The fish showed lower levels of response to the Tugela sample when compared to the Stanger sample. Thus comparatively the Thukela system is regarded to be the least at risk with regards to effluent discharge into the receiving water body. The lower Thukela River integrity assessment showed a sharp increase in temperature below the discharge point of the pulp and paper mill effluent. This was attributed to the excessive temperatures recorded in the pulp and paper effluent itself. There was further decrease in dissolved oxygen, which was due a combination of the industrial waste water in the Mandini River and the pulp and paper effluent. The increased organic content in the sediments of the lowest site situated downstream (TR5) is a combination of both reduced velocity of the stream flow entering the upper reaches of the estuary as well as increased organic material entering the river via the pulp and paper effluent and the Mandini River above TR3-D. This was accompanied by increased contribution of fine particle size sediments to the overall sediment composition. Habitat conditions were near natural at sites upstream of the Mandini River and effluent discharge confluences with the Thukela River. The exception was at TR1 as the weir results in unnatural inundation of biotopes upstream. The habitat conditions around the confluences of the Mandini River and pulp and paper mill effluent discharge are diminished with a recovery noted further downstream at TR4 and TR5. Invertebrate assessment shows the upstream sites to be natural, while the impact sites were largely to seriously modified. Once again the downstream sites (TR4 and TR5) show an improvement to recover to a moderately modified state. The fish assessment also shows a decrease in the FAII score below the impacts when compared to the integrity above the impacts. However these results are of low confidence due to insufficient sampling effort as only electronarcosis, seine and cast nets were used. The Ecoclassification assessment indicated a clear decrease in Ecostatus between the sites that are upstream of the impacts caused by the industrial effluent from the Mandini River and the pulp and paper mill effluent from the effluent discharge stream. The MIRAI also clearly indicated that the major impacts are caused by the combination of the Mandini River and the pulp and paper effluent. However there was a recovery in the river further downstream from the impacts.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Stryftombolas, Irene Christina
- Date: 2010-03-16T07:28:10Z
- Subjects: Water quality , Water pollution , Paper mills toxicology , Pulp mills toxicology , Thukela River catchment (South Africa) , KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa)
- Type: Thesis
- Identifier: uj:6678 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/3082
- Description: M.Sc. , The lower Thukela River catchment supports the highly industrialised Mandini/Sundumbili Industrial Complex, which in turn supports Tugela Rail, a textile factory, a vegetable-oil factory, as well as the Sundumbili Sewerage Treatment works. All of these industries release their wastes into the Mandini River that leads into the lower Thukela River. Another major potential impacting factor on the lower Thukela River is the Sappi Tugela pulp and paper mill that has both abstraction and discharge points in the same region. In 2004 the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry completed a comprehensive Reserve Determination study for the Thukela River. Upon reviewing the results it was clear that many of the variables assessed were of low confidence or there was not sufficient data collected within the region of the Mandini and Thukela River confluence and further downstream (Resource Unit K). Therefore the previous studies were not able to determine the degree to which the industries in the lower Thukela system impacted upon the integrity of the system. The aim of this study was therefore to assess the contributing impacts of the Tugela pulp and paper mill and other industrial activities on the ecological integrity of the lower Thukela River. This was done by through a toxicity assessment of the potential impacts of effluent and wastewater using the Direct Estimation of Ecological Effect Potential (DEEEP) methodologies. The toxicity of pulp and paper effluent from the Thukela mill and the receiving water body was compared to effluents from two other mills (Stanger and Ngodwana), assessing the water quality in relation to the input of different industrial effluents in the lower Thukela River. The general integrity of the lower Thukela River in relation to the input of different industrial effluents was assessed using the Habitat Quality Index (HQI), Habitat Assessment Index (HAI), macroinvertebrate and fish population studies. These studies were integrated to derive the Ecostatus of the lower Thukela River using the Macro-invertebrate and Fish Response Assessment Indices (MIRAI and FAII respectively). The toxicity testing (DEEEP) showed the paper mill effluent in the Mandini River was the least hazardous whilst Ngodwana effluent showed the highest potential to elicit a harmful impact on the receiving water body. The latter effluent displayed the highest LC50 values for the fish and the Daphnia toxicity tests, as well as an extremely high base-pair substitution mutagen activity. Toxicity was also found in algae at 100% raw effluent exposure. Tugela and Stanger mill effluent samples were very similar in their toxicity, except that Stanger effluent showed greater mutagenicity potential with exceptionally high values of revertants. The Tugela effluent samples showed no concerning levels of mutagenicity. The fish showed lower levels of response to the Tugela sample when compared to the Stanger sample. Thus comparatively the Thukela system is regarded to be the least at risk with regards to effluent discharge into the receiving water body. The lower Thukela River integrity assessment showed a sharp increase in temperature below the discharge point of the pulp and paper mill effluent. This was attributed to the excessive temperatures recorded in the pulp and paper effluent itself. There was further decrease in dissolved oxygen, which was due a combination of the industrial waste water in the Mandini River and the pulp and paper effluent. The increased organic content in the sediments of the lowest site situated downstream (TR5) is a combination of both reduced velocity of the stream flow entering the upper reaches of the estuary as well as increased organic material entering the river via the pulp and paper effluent and the Mandini River above TR3-D. This was accompanied by increased contribution of fine particle size sediments to the overall sediment composition. Habitat conditions were near natural at sites upstream of the Mandini River and effluent discharge confluences with the Thukela River. The exception was at TR1 as the weir results in unnatural inundation of biotopes upstream. The habitat conditions around the confluences of the Mandini River and pulp and paper mill effluent discharge are diminished with a recovery noted further downstream at TR4 and TR5. Invertebrate assessment shows the upstream sites to be natural, while the impact sites were largely to seriously modified. Once again the downstream sites (TR4 and TR5) show an improvement to recover to a moderately modified state. The fish assessment also shows a decrease in the FAII score below the impacts when compared to the integrity above the impacts. However these results are of low confidence due to insufficient sampling effort as only electronarcosis, seine and cast nets were used. The Ecoclassification assessment indicated a clear decrease in Ecostatus between the sites that are upstream of the impacts caused by the industrial effluent from the Mandini River and the pulp and paper mill effluent from the effluent discharge stream. The MIRAI also clearly indicated that the major impacts are caused by the combination of the Mandini River and the pulp and paper effluent. However there was a recovery in the river further downstream from the impacts.
- Full Text:
Occurrence of pharmaceuticals in aquatic environments : a review and potential impacts in South Africa
- Ngqwala, Nosiphiwe P., Muchesa, Petros
- Authors: Ngqwala, Nosiphiwe P. , Muchesa, Petros
- Date: 2020
- Subjects: Water pollution , Water systems , Impact of pharmaceutical
- Language: English
- Type: Article
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10210/435414 , uj:37729 , Ngqwala NP, Muchesa P. Occurrence of pharmaceuticals in aquatic environments: A review and potential impacts in South Africa. S Afr J Sci. 2020;116(7/8), Art. #5730, 7 pages. https://doi.org/10.17159/ sajs.2020/5730
- Description: Abstract: , The carbon footprint of pharmaceuticals through manufacturing, distribution, the incineration of unwanted pharmaceuticals as well as the packaging of pharmaceutical waste is an emerging and enormous challenge. Pharmaceuticals are major contributors to water pollution in aquatic environments that include surface water and groundwater. These pollutants arise not only from waste products but also from pharmaceutical products that have not been properly disposed of. The continuous exposure to unspecified sub-therapeutic doses of antibiotics presents risks to humans and other animals. Due to their extensive use and incomplete elimination, antibiotics have been detected in various environmental waters. The persistence of antibiotics in the environment and chronic exposure of organisms to these chemical stressors has also proven to have ecotoxicological effects. The prevailing emergence of antimicrobial resistance amongst bacteria is an area of primary concern, especially with regard to the release of antibiotics into the environment. Resistance is the acquired ability of bacterial populations to render an antibiotic ineffective as a result of a change in bacterial DNA which occurs when bacteria are subjected to an antibiotic concentration that will not kill them. A sub-lethal concentration possibly exerts a selective pressure that can result in the development of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria. It is clear that there is a need for extensive research to improve regulations and guidance on pharmaceutical waste management, pharmaceutical take-back programmes and consumer awareness.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Ngqwala, Nosiphiwe P. , Muchesa, Petros
- Date: 2020
- Subjects: Water pollution , Water systems , Impact of pharmaceutical
- Language: English
- Type: Article
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10210/435414 , uj:37729 , Ngqwala NP, Muchesa P. Occurrence of pharmaceuticals in aquatic environments: A review and potential impacts in South Africa. S Afr J Sci. 2020;116(7/8), Art. #5730, 7 pages. https://doi.org/10.17159/ sajs.2020/5730
- Description: Abstract: , The carbon footprint of pharmaceuticals through manufacturing, distribution, the incineration of unwanted pharmaceuticals as well as the packaging of pharmaceutical waste is an emerging and enormous challenge. Pharmaceuticals are major contributors to water pollution in aquatic environments that include surface water and groundwater. These pollutants arise not only from waste products but also from pharmaceutical products that have not been properly disposed of. The continuous exposure to unspecified sub-therapeutic doses of antibiotics presents risks to humans and other animals. Due to their extensive use and incomplete elimination, antibiotics have been detected in various environmental waters. The persistence of antibiotics in the environment and chronic exposure of organisms to these chemical stressors has also proven to have ecotoxicological effects. The prevailing emergence of antimicrobial resistance amongst bacteria is an area of primary concern, especially with regard to the release of antibiotics into the environment. Resistance is the acquired ability of bacterial populations to render an antibiotic ineffective as a result of a change in bacterial DNA which occurs when bacteria are subjected to an antibiotic concentration that will not kill them. A sub-lethal concentration possibly exerts a selective pressure that can result in the development of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria. It is clear that there is a need for extensive research to improve regulations and guidance on pharmaceutical waste management, pharmaceutical take-back programmes and consumer awareness.
- Full Text:
Seasonal first flush phenomenon and environmental impacts of a number of heavy metals in stormwater discharges in the Witwatersrand area
- Authors: Van der Linde, Marlene
- Date: 2008-06-27T13:48:06Z
- Subjects: Witwatersrand (South Africa) , Urban runoff , Water pollution , Heavy metals , Best management practices (Pollution prevention)
- Type: Mini-Dissertation
- Identifier: uj:10161 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/753
- Description: South Africa’s available freshwater resources are almost fully-utilised and under stress. Water will increasingly become the limiting resource in South Africa, and supply will become a major restriction for the future socio-economic development of the country, in terms of both the amount and quality of water available (Harris et al., 1999). At present, many water resources contain large amounts of pollutants, such as dissolved metal elements (metals and metal compounds that occur in a dissolved state in water), particulate-bound metal elements (metals and metal compounds that are attached to particles such as sand), and suspended, colloidal and volatile fractions of these particulates (Sansalone et al., 1996; Su & Mitchell, 2003). Pollutants interfere with the normal life cycle functions of organisms living in or which are dependent on the water source. These pollutants originate from a variety of point and non-point sources. Among the most significant point sources are industrial waste disposal sites, municipal landfills, and leaking septic tanks. Non-point sources, on the other hand, include agricultural runoff, mine drainage, highway runoff, and runoff from lawns and natural areas. It is therefore necessary to monitor the levels of pollutants in the water to determine if the concentrations are within legal limits, and to implement strategies to mitigate the detrimental impacts of these pollutants on the environment (Miller, 2000). The transport of anthropogenic pollutants by rainfall runoff from highways, in particular, has the potential to adversely impact the quality of adjacent receiving waters and soils (Su & Mitchell, 2003). These pollutants result from traffic activities (such as tire wear and brake wear), thus being dependent on the amount of traffic; and are accumulated on roadways before it is washed away by precipitation (McKenzie & Irwin, 1983; Sansalone et al., 1996; Su & Mitchell, 2003). During the rising limb of the runoff hydrograph, often disproportionately large amounts of both the dissolved and particulate-bound fractions of these heavy metal pollutants are washed off the highway surface, causing peak concentrations of contaminants in rainfall runoff. This phenomenon is commonly referred to as the seasonal first flush, where the initial stage of a storm event contains a large percentage of total pollution (accumulated in the preceding dry season) in a relatively small percentage of runoff volume (Sansalone et al., 1996; Lee et al., 2004; Kim et al., 2005). Such large concentrations of heavy metals introduced into the environment in a short amount of time can have immediate toxic effects, but, since heavy metal elements do not degrade in the environment, they can also accumulate and have long-term toxic effects caused by mass accumulation in plants, animals and humans (Sansalone et al., 1996; Miller, 2000; Arthur, 2004; Kirkby & Römheld, 2004). However, a number of these heavy metals are also crucial in maintaining normal health in humans, animals and plants (Arthur, 2004; Kirkby & Römheld, 2004). Therefore, the primary objectives of this study are to discuss the phenomenon of the seasonal first flush of highway runoff; describe possible environmental effects of too low and too high levels of heavy metals, with reference to relevant legislation concerning water pollution; describe possible best management practices (BMP’s) to lessen the effects of too high levels of heavy metals; describe the study area and why it was chosen; identify shortcomings of the study; collect and analyse relevant data for the last five years (1999 – 2005) to determine if the first flush phenomenon is present for selected heavy metals (aluminium, cadmium, cobalt, chromium, copper, iron, manganese, nickel, lead, and zinc); identify the main heavy metals present in runoff in this area; propose improvements to future highway monitoring projects; and recommend mitigation strategies to reduce the environmental impacts of heavy metals. It was found, using water quality data from Rand Water, that cadmium and copper were not detected at the selected study sites; however it is possible that some aluminium, chromium and lead were present in particulate form. Seasonal first flush was detected for cobalt, manganese, nickel, iron and zinc during most rainy seasons. It was also found that the concentrations of these metals were usually high above the regulation limits for irrigation, aquacultural purposes, aquatic ecosystem health, livestock watering and domestic use throughout the season. Therefore, the results of this study have shown that roads provide a significant contribution of heavy metals to nearby rivers, consequently justifying the need for further study. It is recommended that a monitoring system be designed to collect more accurate information so as to be able to research, plan and implement mitigation strategies, such as Best Management Practices (BMP’s) to improve water quality and lessen the negative effect these metals have on the environment. , Dr. J.M. Meeuwis Dr. J.L. Fischer
- Full Text:
- Authors: Van der Linde, Marlene
- Date: 2008-06-27T13:48:06Z
- Subjects: Witwatersrand (South Africa) , Urban runoff , Water pollution , Heavy metals , Best management practices (Pollution prevention)
- Type: Mini-Dissertation
- Identifier: uj:10161 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/753
- Description: South Africa’s available freshwater resources are almost fully-utilised and under stress. Water will increasingly become the limiting resource in South Africa, and supply will become a major restriction for the future socio-economic development of the country, in terms of both the amount and quality of water available (Harris et al., 1999). At present, many water resources contain large amounts of pollutants, such as dissolved metal elements (metals and metal compounds that occur in a dissolved state in water), particulate-bound metal elements (metals and metal compounds that are attached to particles such as sand), and suspended, colloidal and volatile fractions of these particulates (Sansalone et al., 1996; Su & Mitchell, 2003). Pollutants interfere with the normal life cycle functions of organisms living in or which are dependent on the water source. These pollutants originate from a variety of point and non-point sources. Among the most significant point sources are industrial waste disposal sites, municipal landfills, and leaking septic tanks. Non-point sources, on the other hand, include agricultural runoff, mine drainage, highway runoff, and runoff from lawns and natural areas. It is therefore necessary to monitor the levels of pollutants in the water to determine if the concentrations are within legal limits, and to implement strategies to mitigate the detrimental impacts of these pollutants on the environment (Miller, 2000). The transport of anthropogenic pollutants by rainfall runoff from highways, in particular, has the potential to adversely impact the quality of adjacent receiving waters and soils (Su & Mitchell, 2003). These pollutants result from traffic activities (such as tire wear and brake wear), thus being dependent on the amount of traffic; and are accumulated on roadways before it is washed away by precipitation (McKenzie & Irwin, 1983; Sansalone et al., 1996; Su & Mitchell, 2003). During the rising limb of the runoff hydrograph, often disproportionately large amounts of both the dissolved and particulate-bound fractions of these heavy metal pollutants are washed off the highway surface, causing peak concentrations of contaminants in rainfall runoff. This phenomenon is commonly referred to as the seasonal first flush, where the initial stage of a storm event contains a large percentage of total pollution (accumulated in the preceding dry season) in a relatively small percentage of runoff volume (Sansalone et al., 1996; Lee et al., 2004; Kim et al., 2005). Such large concentrations of heavy metals introduced into the environment in a short amount of time can have immediate toxic effects, but, since heavy metal elements do not degrade in the environment, they can also accumulate and have long-term toxic effects caused by mass accumulation in plants, animals and humans (Sansalone et al., 1996; Miller, 2000; Arthur, 2004; Kirkby & Römheld, 2004). However, a number of these heavy metals are also crucial in maintaining normal health in humans, animals and plants (Arthur, 2004; Kirkby & Römheld, 2004). Therefore, the primary objectives of this study are to discuss the phenomenon of the seasonal first flush of highway runoff; describe possible environmental effects of too low and too high levels of heavy metals, with reference to relevant legislation concerning water pollution; describe possible best management practices (BMP’s) to lessen the effects of too high levels of heavy metals; describe the study area and why it was chosen; identify shortcomings of the study; collect and analyse relevant data for the last five years (1999 – 2005) to determine if the first flush phenomenon is present for selected heavy metals (aluminium, cadmium, cobalt, chromium, copper, iron, manganese, nickel, lead, and zinc); identify the main heavy metals present in runoff in this area; propose improvements to future highway monitoring projects; and recommend mitigation strategies to reduce the environmental impacts of heavy metals. It was found, using water quality data from Rand Water, that cadmium and copper were not detected at the selected study sites; however it is possible that some aluminium, chromium and lead were present in particulate form. Seasonal first flush was detected for cobalt, manganese, nickel, iron and zinc during most rainy seasons. It was also found that the concentrations of these metals were usually high above the regulation limits for irrigation, aquacultural purposes, aquatic ecosystem health, livestock watering and domestic use throughout the season. Therefore, the results of this study have shown that roads provide a significant contribution of heavy metals to nearby rivers, consequently justifying the need for further study. It is recommended that a monitoring system be designed to collect more accurate information so as to be able to research, plan and implement mitigation strategies, such as Best Management Practices (BMP’s) to improve water quality and lessen the negative effect these metals have on the environment. , Dr. J.M. Meeuwis Dr. J.L. Fischer
- Full Text:
Seasonal rainfall influences on main pollutants in the Vaal River barrage reservoir: a temporal-spatial perspective
- Authors: Ochse, Estie
- Date: 2009-04-30T10:05:48Z
- Subjects: Pollutants , Water pollution , Water quality management , Vaal River (South Africa)
- Type: Thesis
- Identifier: uj:8341 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/2467
- Description: M.A. , South Africa is situated within a semi-arid part of the world which is characterised by high seasonal variability in terms of rainfall and runoff, with high evaporation rates. This causes streamflow to be relatively low for most of the year, with seasonal sporadic high flows. Further stress is applied to the water resource through population growth, increased urbanisation and industrial activities. The study area is considered to be the most populated of the Upper Vaal Water Management Area (WMA), which is the most important WMA in terms of economic productivity in South Africa. This research report focused on assessing the temporal and spatial variations of pollution between four different sampling points located in the Vaal Barrage Reservoir, which is located in the heart of the Upper Vaal WMA. The Vaal River Barrage Reservoir forms a 64 kilometres long water body with an estimated total storage capacity of 63 million litres of water. The four sampling points are V2 (Vaal River at Engelbrechts Drift Weir); VRB 24 (Vaal River Barrage at 24 km); VRB 37 (Vaal River Barrage at 37 km) and V17 (Vaal Barrage Reservoir Outlet). The aim of this research is to determine the type of physical and chemical pollutants within the Vaal River Barrage which currently poses the biggest problem to river health. The spatial and temporal differences of the pollutant loads are established and discussed. In addition, it is determined what the seasonal influence of rainfall has on the water quality measured at the four different sampling points. Chemical pollutants which currently pose the biggest threat in terms of water quality for the Vaal Barrage Reservoir are Phosphates, Electrical Conductivity and Sulphates. These three water quality variables do not comply with the minimum standards as set by Rand Water. The occurrence of these pollutants in the Vaal River can be explained by the vast inputs of return flow water from sewage treatment plants, underground mine water and discharge from industries. Microbiological factors were not taken into consideration for this dissertation, due to the unavailability of the data for most of the sampling sites for the majority of the study period. It was found that there are seasonal variations in terms of water quality at three sampling points: VRB24, VRB37 and V17. Sample point V17 had the highest inverse correlation for the three pollutants which pose the biggest threat to the health of the Vaal Barrage Reservoir water body. This implies that high seasonal variability occurs in the pollutant load at this sampling point. Sample point V2 had extremely low inverse correlation figures, which implies that rainfall has little or no impact on the level/concentration of a pollutant. This can be explained by two factors. Firstly the dilution effect which water released from the Vaal Dam has due to the close proximity to V2. Secondly because urban, mining and industrial activities are much less evident at this point, and subsequently return flows are less.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Ochse, Estie
- Date: 2009-04-30T10:05:48Z
- Subjects: Pollutants , Water pollution , Water quality management , Vaal River (South Africa)
- Type: Thesis
- Identifier: uj:8341 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/2467
- Description: M.A. , South Africa is situated within a semi-arid part of the world which is characterised by high seasonal variability in terms of rainfall and runoff, with high evaporation rates. This causes streamflow to be relatively low for most of the year, with seasonal sporadic high flows. Further stress is applied to the water resource through population growth, increased urbanisation and industrial activities. The study area is considered to be the most populated of the Upper Vaal Water Management Area (WMA), which is the most important WMA in terms of economic productivity in South Africa. This research report focused on assessing the temporal and spatial variations of pollution between four different sampling points located in the Vaal Barrage Reservoir, which is located in the heart of the Upper Vaal WMA. The Vaal River Barrage Reservoir forms a 64 kilometres long water body with an estimated total storage capacity of 63 million litres of water. The four sampling points are V2 (Vaal River at Engelbrechts Drift Weir); VRB 24 (Vaal River Barrage at 24 km); VRB 37 (Vaal River Barrage at 37 km) and V17 (Vaal Barrage Reservoir Outlet). The aim of this research is to determine the type of physical and chemical pollutants within the Vaal River Barrage which currently poses the biggest problem to river health. The spatial and temporal differences of the pollutant loads are established and discussed. In addition, it is determined what the seasonal influence of rainfall has on the water quality measured at the four different sampling points. Chemical pollutants which currently pose the biggest threat in terms of water quality for the Vaal Barrage Reservoir are Phosphates, Electrical Conductivity and Sulphates. These three water quality variables do not comply with the minimum standards as set by Rand Water. The occurrence of these pollutants in the Vaal River can be explained by the vast inputs of return flow water from sewage treatment plants, underground mine water and discharge from industries. Microbiological factors were not taken into consideration for this dissertation, due to the unavailability of the data for most of the sampling sites for the majority of the study period. It was found that there are seasonal variations in terms of water quality at three sampling points: VRB24, VRB37 and V17. Sample point V17 had the highest inverse correlation for the three pollutants which pose the biggest threat to the health of the Vaal Barrage Reservoir water body. This implies that high seasonal variability occurs in the pollutant load at this sampling point. Sample point V2 had extremely low inverse correlation figures, which implies that rainfall has little or no impact on the level/concentration of a pollutant. This can be explained by two factors. Firstly the dilution effect which water released from the Vaal Dam has due to the close proximity to V2. Secondly because urban, mining and industrial activities are much less evident at this point, and subsequently return flows are less.
- Full Text:
The application of the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry's "waste discharge system", quantified at Optimum Colliery: a case study
- Authors: Lachenicht, Daniel Charles
- Date: 2009-02-05T07:13:47Z
- Subjects: Water pollution , Mine water purification
- Type: Thesis (M.Sc.)
- Identifier: uj:8090 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/2019
- Description: M.Sc.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Lachenicht, Daniel Charles
- Date: 2009-02-05T07:13:47Z
- Subjects: Water pollution , Mine water purification
- Type: Thesis (M.Sc.)
- Identifier: uj:8090 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/2019
- Description: M.Sc.
- Full Text:
The assessment of the influence of treated underground mine water on the benthic fauna in a portion of the Blesbokspruit Ramsar Site
- Authors: Van der Merwe, Charl
- Date: 2009-02-02T07:15:06Z
- Subjects: Water quality , Water pollution , Mine water , Blesbokspruit (South Africa) , Effect of water pollution on benthic animals
- Type: Thesis (M. Sc.)
- Identifier: uj:14865 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/1986
- Description: M.A. , The increased demand on resources and particular on water in South Africa is, inter alia, owing to the high population growth, urbanisation and concomitant industrial development. A decrease in water quality impairs the sustainable use of water, economic development and environmental health. Although water quality monitoring in the past focused mainly on the determination of the chemical and physical variables it is currently accepted as inadequate to determine the “health” of an aquatic ecosystem. This study does not concentrate on the impact of the chemical and physical variables on the ecosystem but rather determines the biological affect of treated underground mine water pumped into an aquatic ecosystem. The causes of water pollution can be point source in origin, for example, from water purification works and mines or it could also be from a diverse source such as stormwater, agricultural activities, seepage from various sources such as dumpsites, slimes dams and even from some geological formations. Mining, as one of the major job creators in South Africa, is also one of the major sources of pollution of aquatic systems. This is, in particular, relevant to worked out mines, older mines and marginal mines. The area of investigation is a portion of the Blesbokspruit Ramsar Site on the East Rand and, with its large bird specie diversity, appears to be a healthy system. This study shows that there is extensive debilitation of water quality in this portion of the Blesbokspruit which is further being impaired by the treated underground water pumped into the Blesbokspruit by the Grootvlei Mine. The purpose of this study was to determine the probable hazard of the polluted water of the Blesbokspruit for biota by making use of benthic faunal studies. Previous studies (Adendorff, 1997; Chutter, 1998 and Davies & Day, 1998) proved that the benthic fauna decrease with an increase in water pollution. The water quality of the Blesbokspruit in the test area was compared with the water quality standards for natural water set by the National Department of Water Affairs and Forestry as well as the water quality targets as set by Rand Water. The water quality of the test area was below standard when compared with both sets of standards. Biomonitoring also indicated that, because of the low counts of invertebrates, compared to the high counts of invertebrates in pristine aquatic systems, that this system is under pressure. This study indicates that the water quality of the Blesbokspruit Ramsar Site seriously impacts upon the benthic fauna and that the treated mine water from Grootvlei Mine, which is being pumped into the system, leaves this system stripped of all benthic fauna over an undetermined area. From this study it is also clear that managerial standards are urgently needed for water quality control and that water quality management should not only take the data of chemical water analysis into account but biological compounds should also be considered.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Van der Merwe, Charl
- Date: 2009-02-02T07:15:06Z
- Subjects: Water quality , Water pollution , Mine water , Blesbokspruit (South Africa) , Effect of water pollution on benthic animals
- Type: Thesis (M. Sc.)
- Identifier: uj:14865 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/1986
- Description: M.A. , The increased demand on resources and particular on water in South Africa is, inter alia, owing to the high population growth, urbanisation and concomitant industrial development. A decrease in water quality impairs the sustainable use of water, economic development and environmental health. Although water quality monitoring in the past focused mainly on the determination of the chemical and physical variables it is currently accepted as inadequate to determine the “health” of an aquatic ecosystem. This study does not concentrate on the impact of the chemical and physical variables on the ecosystem but rather determines the biological affect of treated underground mine water pumped into an aquatic ecosystem. The causes of water pollution can be point source in origin, for example, from water purification works and mines or it could also be from a diverse source such as stormwater, agricultural activities, seepage from various sources such as dumpsites, slimes dams and even from some geological formations. Mining, as one of the major job creators in South Africa, is also one of the major sources of pollution of aquatic systems. This is, in particular, relevant to worked out mines, older mines and marginal mines. The area of investigation is a portion of the Blesbokspruit Ramsar Site on the East Rand and, with its large bird specie diversity, appears to be a healthy system. This study shows that there is extensive debilitation of water quality in this portion of the Blesbokspruit which is further being impaired by the treated underground water pumped into the Blesbokspruit by the Grootvlei Mine. The purpose of this study was to determine the probable hazard of the polluted water of the Blesbokspruit for biota by making use of benthic faunal studies. Previous studies (Adendorff, 1997; Chutter, 1998 and Davies & Day, 1998) proved that the benthic fauna decrease with an increase in water pollution. The water quality of the Blesbokspruit in the test area was compared with the water quality standards for natural water set by the National Department of Water Affairs and Forestry as well as the water quality targets as set by Rand Water. The water quality of the test area was below standard when compared with both sets of standards. Biomonitoring also indicated that, because of the low counts of invertebrates, compared to the high counts of invertebrates in pristine aquatic systems, that this system is under pressure. This study indicates that the water quality of the Blesbokspruit Ramsar Site seriously impacts upon the benthic fauna and that the treated mine water from Grootvlei Mine, which is being pumped into the system, leaves this system stripped of all benthic fauna over an undetermined area. From this study it is also clear that managerial standards are urgently needed for water quality control and that water quality management should not only take the data of chemical water analysis into account but biological compounds should also be considered.
- Full Text:
The effect of floods and high rainfall on the water quality in selected sub-areas of the upper Vaal Catchment
- Authors: Merolla, Sonia
- Date: 2012-08-21
- Subjects: Floods - Environmental aspects , Rainfall - Environmental aspects , Runoff - Environmental aspects , Water pollution , Vaal River Watershed (South Africa)
- Type: Mini-Dissertation
- Identifier: uj:2874 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/6307
- Description: M.Sc. , The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of flooding and high rainfall on water quality at selected points along the Vaal River, Wilge River and Vaal Dam that make up part of the Upper Vaal Catchment Area. Four study sites were selected, three along a section of the Vaal River that flows from Standerton (site S-ST_NEW) through Villiers (site C-VV) into the Vaal Dam ( C-VD21). The fourth site is on the Wilge River at Frankfort (C-WF) and joins with the Vaal River at site C-VD21 in the Vaal Dam. For each of these four sites seven water quality parameters, namely Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), conductivity, chloride, fluoride, orthophosphate, sulphate and faecal coliforms where used to determine if there is a change in water quality during flooding and high rainfall in a six year period from 2005 to 2011. This period included the 2006 and 2011 floods and the 2009 high rainfall period. The results of this study demonstrated two types of changes that flooding and high rainfall can cause, either a dilution effect or a concentrating effect. Dilution is caused by low runoff of a particular pollutant/contaminant with an increase in water volume while the concentrating effect is due to a much increased runoff of a particular pollutant/contaminant. Results were not consistent. However general trends could be observed at specific sites. As a general rule, dilution occurred in the following parameters: conductivity; chloride, orthophosphate, COD and faecal coliforms. The remaining water quality parameters, namely fluoride and sulphate showed a general tendency to increase in concentration during flooding and high rainfall. The effect of floods on the quality of the water using the Vaal Dam Reservoir Forum (VDRS) water quality guidelines for sites C-VV, C-WF and C-VD21 and the Sewage Works Compliance to general standard for site S-ST_NEW was also studied. In general, flooding and high rainfall had very little effect in changing water quality, in that parameter levels were not altered significantly enough to cause a change in water quality. However, in some circumstances water quality was reduced. The statistical two-tailed one-sample t-test and p-value for the most part did not yield any significant difference in water quality during flooding and high rainfall and the sixyear average.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Merolla, Sonia
- Date: 2012-08-21
- Subjects: Floods - Environmental aspects , Rainfall - Environmental aspects , Runoff - Environmental aspects , Water pollution , Vaal River Watershed (South Africa)
- Type: Mini-Dissertation
- Identifier: uj:2874 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/6307
- Description: M.Sc. , The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of flooding and high rainfall on water quality at selected points along the Vaal River, Wilge River and Vaal Dam that make up part of the Upper Vaal Catchment Area. Four study sites were selected, three along a section of the Vaal River that flows from Standerton (site S-ST_NEW) through Villiers (site C-VV) into the Vaal Dam ( C-VD21). The fourth site is on the Wilge River at Frankfort (C-WF) and joins with the Vaal River at site C-VD21 in the Vaal Dam. For each of these four sites seven water quality parameters, namely Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), conductivity, chloride, fluoride, orthophosphate, sulphate and faecal coliforms where used to determine if there is a change in water quality during flooding and high rainfall in a six year period from 2005 to 2011. This period included the 2006 and 2011 floods and the 2009 high rainfall period. The results of this study demonstrated two types of changes that flooding and high rainfall can cause, either a dilution effect or a concentrating effect. Dilution is caused by low runoff of a particular pollutant/contaminant with an increase in water volume while the concentrating effect is due to a much increased runoff of a particular pollutant/contaminant. Results were not consistent. However general trends could be observed at specific sites. As a general rule, dilution occurred in the following parameters: conductivity; chloride, orthophosphate, COD and faecal coliforms. The remaining water quality parameters, namely fluoride and sulphate showed a general tendency to increase in concentration during flooding and high rainfall. The effect of floods on the quality of the water using the Vaal Dam Reservoir Forum (VDRS) water quality guidelines for sites C-VV, C-WF and C-VD21 and the Sewage Works Compliance to general standard for site S-ST_NEW was also studied. In general, flooding and high rainfall had very little effect in changing water quality, in that parameter levels were not altered significantly enough to cause a change in water quality. However, in some circumstances water quality was reduced. The statistical two-tailed one-sample t-test and p-value for the most part did not yield any significant difference in water quality during flooding and high rainfall and the sixyear average.
- Full Text:
The impact of industrial effluences on water quality in the Waterval River catchment
- Authors: Nel, Selma
- Date: 2009-03-31T09:45:32Z
- Subjects: Water quality , Water quality management , Water pollution , Klipspruit River (South Africa)
- Type: Mini-Dissertation
- Identifier: uj:8278 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/2387
- Description: M.A. , The goal of this study is to determine the water quality of the Klipspruit River over a six-year period, from 2000 to 2005. The Klipspruit lies within the sub-catchment area of the Waterval River, which in itself forms part of the Upper Vaal Catchment. The Klipspruit runs through the city of Secunda in Mpumalanga Province, South Africa, its catchment area providing two percent of the water to the Vaal Dam. In its turn, the Vaal Dam is the main raw water source for Rand Water that provides potable water to 10 million people in its 18 000 square kilometre service area. This study specifically focuses on the long-term trends of six selected water-quality parameters related to the effluent generated at the Sasol Secunda Industrial Complex (SSIC) during its coal-to-fuel operations. Certain physical, chemical and organic water-quality parameters of the Klipspruit were investigated on the basis of samples taken from three monitoring points in it. The water samples were analysed in terms of the water quality guidelines stipulated by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF), as well as the In-stream Water Quality Guidelines laid down by the Waterval River Catchment Management Agency. This was done to determine how industrial effluent impacts upon water quality in general and also how it affects water usage in other respects. The water-use categories considered in this study include aquatic ecosystems, domestic systems, livestock watering and irrigation systems. The results of conducting a regression analysis on the data collected from the monitoring points on the Klipspruit and assessing it in terms of the specifications laid down by the guidelines in question show that the respective concentrations of a number of water quality parameters in the upper part of the Klipspruit often exceed the ideal water quality levels. However, these concentration levels stabilize over time as the river continues to flow downstream. This is mainly due to the location of the first monitoring point which is close to the Sasol Secunda Industrial Complex (SSIC), where the effluent is generated, and also because the Secunda Sewage Treatment Plant is in the vicinity.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Nel, Selma
- Date: 2009-03-31T09:45:32Z
- Subjects: Water quality , Water quality management , Water pollution , Klipspruit River (South Africa)
- Type: Mini-Dissertation
- Identifier: uj:8278 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/2387
- Description: M.A. , The goal of this study is to determine the water quality of the Klipspruit River over a six-year period, from 2000 to 2005. The Klipspruit lies within the sub-catchment area of the Waterval River, which in itself forms part of the Upper Vaal Catchment. The Klipspruit runs through the city of Secunda in Mpumalanga Province, South Africa, its catchment area providing two percent of the water to the Vaal Dam. In its turn, the Vaal Dam is the main raw water source for Rand Water that provides potable water to 10 million people in its 18 000 square kilometre service area. This study specifically focuses on the long-term trends of six selected water-quality parameters related to the effluent generated at the Sasol Secunda Industrial Complex (SSIC) during its coal-to-fuel operations. Certain physical, chemical and organic water-quality parameters of the Klipspruit were investigated on the basis of samples taken from three monitoring points in it. The water samples were analysed in terms of the water quality guidelines stipulated by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF), as well as the In-stream Water Quality Guidelines laid down by the Waterval River Catchment Management Agency. This was done to determine how industrial effluent impacts upon water quality in general and also how it affects water usage in other respects. The water-use categories considered in this study include aquatic ecosystems, domestic systems, livestock watering and irrigation systems. The results of conducting a regression analysis on the data collected from the monitoring points on the Klipspruit and assessing it in terms of the specifications laid down by the guidelines in question show that the respective concentrations of a number of water quality parameters in the upper part of the Klipspruit often exceed the ideal water quality levels. However, these concentration levels stabilize over time as the river continues to flow downstream. This is mainly due to the location of the first monitoring point which is close to the Sasol Secunda Industrial Complex (SSIC), where the effluent is generated, and also because the Secunda Sewage Treatment Plant is in the vicinity.
- Full Text:
The impact of power station emissions on surface water quality in Mpumalanga: the case of Majuba Power Station
- Authors: Molebatsi, Nompumelelo
- Date: 2009-02-05T07:12:48Z
- Subjects: Water quality , Water pollution , Power plants , Mpumalanga (South Africa)
- Type: Thesis
- Identifier: uj:8086 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/2015
- Description: M.Sc. , The impact of air pollution by power stations on water quality, just like any other source of water pollution, is an issue of concern for all the water users since any degradation in water quality affects the water's suitability for use. The study area in which Majuba power station is located was chosen because it is in an area free of industrialisation, and is also part of the Vaal catchment. This catchment area is very important because of its water supply for Gauteng province and provides an ideal opportunity to monitor surface water pollution from atmospheric sources such as power stations. The purpose of this research is to investigate the chemical, physical and biological quality of surface water in the vicinity (within a 31 kilometre radius) of Majuba power station. The study will determine whether this power station is causing any salinity and acidity problems at the chosen sampling sites. Salinity and acidity are water quality problems associated with atmospheric pollution. The aim of the study is to determine whether proximity to Majuba power station has an effect on the surrounding surface water quality. The research was conducted by means of water quality sampling, analyses and assessment. Water quality samples were taken from six sites (Majuba 1 to Majuba 6) in the vicinity of Majuba power station over a period of three years (1997 to 1999). The approach was to take four samples in a year coinciding with the four seasons of the year. Due to logistical problems only two sampling trips were undertaken, during 1997. In 1998 and 1999 the full four sampling trips were undertaken however in some instances the river was dry or was flooded hence no samples could be taken at the affected sampling sites (although a trip to the sampling site was made). The biological analyses where done on site using the biomonitoring technique while chemical analyses were performed at the laboratory at Eskom. The biomonitoring assessment was done using the biomonitoring technique. The chemical results were assessed in terms of the suitability for use for the aquatic environment. This was done by using the water quality guidelines for the aquatic environment. The chemical results indicated that in terms of salinity and acidity the site closest to the power station, namely Majuba 1 had the worst water quality of the six sites. Majuba 1 also had the worst results in terms of biomonitoring. Majuba 2 indicated elevated salinity levels. The other four sites, namely Majuba 3 to 6, did not indicate either salinisation or acidification. However, the biomonitoring results at these sites indicated, with the exception of Majuba 4, some deterioration in water quality. Majuba 4 had the best water quality in terms of biomonitoring. Reasons for this could not be determined. At present it is still premature to say whether acidity in the water is a problem. This is a preliminary study and currently a more detailed multidisciplinary study that includes disciplines such as atmospheric deposition, groundwater chemistry, soil profiles and hydrology is being undertaken on the Upper Vaal catchment to comprehensively determine the impact of air pollution from power stations on the surface water quality. The proposal will be presented to the South African Water Research Commission. The ultimate aim of the multidisciplinary study is to inform decision makers in water quality management sector regarding the impact of air pollution on surface water quality, in order for them to put in place abatement technologies or strategies to mitigate surface water quality pollution.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Molebatsi, Nompumelelo
- Date: 2009-02-05T07:12:48Z
- Subjects: Water quality , Water pollution , Power plants , Mpumalanga (South Africa)
- Type: Thesis
- Identifier: uj:8086 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/2015
- Description: M.Sc. , The impact of air pollution by power stations on water quality, just like any other source of water pollution, is an issue of concern for all the water users since any degradation in water quality affects the water's suitability for use. The study area in which Majuba power station is located was chosen because it is in an area free of industrialisation, and is also part of the Vaal catchment. This catchment area is very important because of its water supply for Gauteng province and provides an ideal opportunity to monitor surface water pollution from atmospheric sources such as power stations. The purpose of this research is to investigate the chemical, physical and biological quality of surface water in the vicinity (within a 31 kilometre radius) of Majuba power station. The study will determine whether this power station is causing any salinity and acidity problems at the chosen sampling sites. Salinity and acidity are water quality problems associated with atmospheric pollution. The aim of the study is to determine whether proximity to Majuba power station has an effect on the surrounding surface water quality. The research was conducted by means of water quality sampling, analyses and assessment. Water quality samples were taken from six sites (Majuba 1 to Majuba 6) in the vicinity of Majuba power station over a period of three years (1997 to 1999). The approach was to take four samples in a year coinciding with the four seasons of the year. Due to logistical problems only two sampling trips were undertaken, during 1997. In 1998 and 1999 the full four sampling trips were undertaken however in some instances the river was dry or was flooded hence no samples could be taken at the affected sampling sites (although a trip to the sampling site was made). The biological analyses where done on site using the biomonitoring technique while chemical analyses were performed at the laboratory at Eskom. The biomonitoring assessment was done using the biomonitoring technique. The chemical results were assessed in terms of the suitability for use for the aquatic environment. This was done by using the water quality guidelines for the aquatic environment. The chemical results indicated that in terms of salinity and acidity the site closest to the power station, namely Majuba 1 had the worst water quality of the six sites. Majuba 1 also had the worst results in terms of biomonitoring. Majuba 2 indicated elevated salinity levels. The other four sites, namely Majuba 3 to 6, did not indicate either salinisation or acidification. However, the biomonitoring results at these sites indicated, with the exception of Majuba 4, some deterioration in water quality. Majuba 4 had the best water quality in terms of biomonitoring. Reasons for this could not be determined. At present it is still premature to say whether acidity in the water is a problem. This is a preliminary study and currently a more detailed multidisciplinary study that includes disciplines such as atmospheric deposition, groundwater chemistry, soil profiles and hydrology is being undertaken on the Upper Vaal catchment to comprehensively determine the impact of air pollution from power stations on the surface water quality. The proposal will be presented to the South African Water Research Commission. The ultimate aim of the multidisciplinary study is to inform decision makers in water quality management sector regarding the impact of air pollution on surface water quality, in order for them to put in place abatement technologies or strategies to mitigate surface water quality pollution.
- Full Text:
The sequestration of heavy metals contaminating the Wonderfonteinspruit catchment area using natural zeolite
- Diale, Palesa. P., Mkhize, S.S.L., Muzenda, Edison, Zimba, Josephat
- Authors: Diale, Palesa. P. , Mkhize, S.S.L. , Muzenda, Edison , Zimba, Josephat
- Date: 2011
- Subjects: Wonderfonteinspruit Catchment Area (South Africa) , Natural zeolite , Water pollution , Heavy metals
- Type: Article
- Identifier: uj:6086 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/10938
- Description: For more than 120 years, gold mining formed the backbone the South Africa’s economy. The consequence of mine closure was observed in large-scale land degradation and widespread pollution of surface water and groundwater. This paper investigates the feasibility of using natural zeolite in removing heavy metals contaminating the Wonderfonteinspruit Catchment Area (WCA), a water stream with high levels of heavy metals and radionuclide pollution. Batch experiments were conducted to study the adsorption behavior of natural zeolite with respect to Fe2+, Mn2+, Ni2+, and Zn2+. The data was analysed using the Langmuir and Freudlich isotherms. Langmuir was found to correlate the adsorption of Fe2+, Mn2+, Ni2+, and Zn2+ better, with the adsorption capacity of 11.9 mg/g, 1.2 mg/g, 1.3 mg/g, and 14.7 mg/g, respectively. Two kinetic models namely, pseudo-first order and pseudo second order were also tested to fit the data. Pseudo-second order equation was found to be the best fit for the adsorption of heavy metals by natural zeolite. Zeolite functionalization with humic acid increased its uptake ability.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Diale, Palesa. P. , Mkhize, S.S.L. , Muzenda, Edison , Zimba, Josephat
- Date: 2011
- Subjects: Wonderfonteinspruit Catchment Area (South Africa) , Natural zeolite , Water pollution , Heavy metals
- Type: Article
- Identifier: uj:6086 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/10938
- Description: For more than 120 years, gold mining formed the backbone the South Africa’s economy. The consequence of mine closure was observed in large-scale land degradation and widespread pollution of surface water and groundwater. This paper investigates the feasibility of using natural zeolite in removing heavy metals contaminating the Wonderfonteinspruit Catchment Area (WCA), a water stream with high levels of heavy metals and radionuclide pollution. Batch experiments were conducted to study the adsorption behavior of natural zeolite with respect to Fe2+, Mn2+, Ni2+, and Zn2+. The data was analysed using the Langmuir and Freudlich isotherms. Langmuir was found to correlate the adsorption of Fe2+, Mn2+, Ni2+, and Zn2+ better, with the adsorption capacity of 11.9 mg/g, 1.2 mg/g, 1.3 mg/g, and 14.7 mg/g, respectively. Two kinetic models namely, pseudo-first order and pseudo second order were also tested to fit the data. Pseudo-second order equation was found to be the best fit for the adsorption of heavy metals by natural zeolite. Zeolite functionalization with humic acid increased its uptake ability.
- Full Text:
The use of carbon nanotubes co-polymerized with calixarenes for the removal of cadmium and organic contaminants from water
- Authors: Makayonke, Nozuko Thelma
- Date: 2012-05-02
- Subjects: Water pollution , Nanotubes , Calixarenes , Organic water pollutants , Cadmium toxicology , Carbon , Nanostructured materials , Water purification , Organic compounds removal , Cadmium removal
- Type: Thesis
- Identifier: http://ujcontent.uj.ac.za8080/${Handle} , uj:2231 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/4671
- Description: M.Sc. , The contamination of water by toxic compounds is one of the most serious environmental problems today. These toxic compounds mostly originate from industrial effluents, agriculture runoff, natural sources (e.g. heavy metals in water from rocks and soil erosion) and human waste. The contamination, which is both “organic” and “inorganic” has an impact on the environment and human health. The demand for water and the pressure to re-use this valuable resource has increased the need for improved techniques and materials to remove pollutants from water. The Nanomaterials Science research group at the University of Johannesburg has focused on developing synthetic polymers that can be employed in water treatment and pollutant monitoring. Recently, cyclodextrins (CD) and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been included in polymers for this application. For example, CD-co-hexamethylene-/toluene-diisocyanate polyurethanes and CNT-modified equivalents have been developed and have been successfully applied in removing organic contaminants from water to very low levels.1 Calixarenes are synthetic analogues of cyclodextrins that can be exploited via chemical modification to express a range of properties. In the present study, calixarenes, thiacalixarenes and carbon nanotube-based polymeric materials incorporating these molecules have been synthesised, characterised and tested for removing both organic pollutants (such as p-nitrophenol) and inorganic pollutants (Cd2+, Pb2+) from water. Lead(II) and Cadmium(II) are a threat in South Africa because of their toxicity, and while p-nitrophenol is much less of a problem it represents a useful model organic pollutant. The absorption capacity of the polymers towards heavy metals and organic contaminants was tested by mixing the polymer with synthetic water containing known concentration of the contaminants at about 10 mg/L. Atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) and ultraviolet-visible spectrometry (UV-vis) were used to determine the levels of heavy metals and organic contaminants, respectively. The target pollutants (Cd2+, 1 see KL Salipira MTech dissertation, University of Johannesburg 2008 Pb2+ and p-nitrophenol) were all successfully removed from water by the various polymers, however the degree of removal and loading capacities of the polymers differed. This information gives some insight into what functional components are needed for making successful adsorbents. It was observed, for example, that ptert- butylcalix[8]arene/hexamethylene diisocyanate (C8A/HMDI) had a higher adsorption capacity towards p-nitrophenol and Pb2+ than towards Cd2+, and also a higher capacity than the corresponding calix[4]arene polymers with smaller calixarene cavities.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Makayonke, Nozuko Thelma
- Date: 2012-05-02
- Subjects: Water pollution , Nanotubes , Calixarenes , Organic water pollutants , Cadmium toxicology , Carbon , Nanostructured materials , Water purification , Organic compounds removal , Cadmium removal
- Type: Thesis
- Identifier: http://ujcontent.uj.ac.za8080/${Handle} , uj:2231 , http://hdl.handle.net/10210/4671
- Description: M.Sc. , The contamination of water by toxic compounds is one of the most serious environmental problems today. These toxic compounds mostly originate from industrial effluents, agriculture runoff, natural sources (e.g. heavy metals in water from rocks and soil erosion) and human waste. The contamination, which is both “organic” and “inorganic” has an impact on the environment and human health. The demand for water and the pressure to re-use this valuable resource has increased the need for improved techniques and materials to remove pollutants from water. The Nanomaterials Science research group at the University of Johannesburg has focused on developing synthetic polymers that can be employed in water treatment and pollutant monitoring. Recently, cyclodextrins (CD) and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been included in polymers for this application. For example, CD-co-hexamethylene-/toluene-diisocyanate polyurethanes and CNT-modified equivalents have been developed and have been successfully applied in removing organic contaminants from water to very low levels.1 Calixarenes are synthetic analogues of cyclodextrins that can be exploited via chemical modification to express a range of properties. In the present study, calixarenes, thiacalixarenes and carbon nanotube-based polymeric materials incorporating these molecules have been synthesised, characterised and tested for removing both organic pollutants (such as p-nitrophenol) and inorganic pollutants (Cd2+, Pb2+) from water. Lead(II) and Cadmium(II) are a threat in South Africa because of their toxicity, and while p-nitrophenol is much less of a problem it represents a useful model organic pollutant. The absorption capacity of the polymers towards heavy metals and organic contaminants was tested by mixing the polymer with synthetic water containing known concentration of the contaminants at about 10 mg/L. Atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) and ultraviolet-visible spectrometry (UV-vis) were used to determine the levels of heavy metals and organic contaminants, respectively. The target pollutants (Cd2+, 1 see KL Salipira MTech dissertation, University of Johannesburg 2008 Pb2+ and p-nitrophenol) were all successfully removed from water by the various polymers, however the degree of removal and loading capacities of the polymers differed. This information gives some insight into what functional components are needed for making successful adsorbents. It was observed, for example, that ptert- butylcalix[8]arene/hexamethylene diisocyanate (C8A/HMDI) had a higher adsorption capacity towards p-nitrophenol and Pb2+ than towards Cd2+, and also a higher capacity than the corresponding calix[4]arene polymers with smaller calixarene cavities.
- Full Text:
- «
- ‹
- 1
- ›
- »