Abstract
Biochemical analyses of residues preserved on ethno-historical and archaeological artefacts increase
our understanding of past indigenous knowledge systems. The interpretation of biochemical traces is,
however, difficult. Problems that can hamper credible interpretations of ethno-historical or archaeological
residues include incomplete knowledge about local natural products, limited published data about product
applications, and overestimation of the abilities of the analytical techniques to make specific identifications.
In an initial attempt to address some of the challenges, we discuss arrow poison as a case in point, and
we provide complete, updated inventories of known southern African poison ingredients and recipes,
suspected poisons, and the current state of knowledge about these toxins and their effects. We also suggest
that discoveries of ancient arrow poison, and the technical steps involved in early toxicology, have the
potential to indicate levels of human cognition.