Abstract
This dissertation addresses the following main research question: Is there evidence of
a norm with regard to the shape and structure of the cross in the Roman Empire? In
order to address this question, the study will consider two focal issues: 1) the evidence
regarding beam configuration, and 2) the evidence regarding the use of a sedile.
Chapter one introduces the dissertation and provides a literature review. Chapter two
presents the pre-Constantinian visual evidence of crucifixion. Chapter three
investigates the literary evidence of the shape of the cross in the Christian and pagan
corpora. The chapter explores whether the evidence points to a normative shape by
noting descriptive motifs within each corpus, testing these patterns through crosscorpus
comparison, evaluating the evidence for variations in shape, and assessing the
results against the visual evidence. Chapter four examines the evidence for the use of
a sedile. Since only six pre-Constantinian texts are used as evidence for a sedile, each
text is analysed in detail. Each is also contextualised by examining whether the
author’s wider work illuminates the passage. The six texts are then compared to one
another, as well as to the few contemporaneous and fourth-century texts that use
similar language. The analysis of the textual evidence is then weighed against the
visual evidence and against medical studies often viewed as providing a rationale for
the sedile. A central throughline in chapters three and four is the argument that ancient
authors regularly employ metaphor when describing crucifixion. It is contended that
careful interpretation of metaphor is essential, since metaphors may at times be
significant pointers to crucifixion practices, while at other times they may serve purely
rhetorical purposes. In such cases, overly literal readings risk obscuring the evidence.
Finally, the conclusion summarises the study, answers the research question, and
suggests avenues for further research.