Abstract
Ph.D.
Fossil fuel burning within residential, industrial and power generation sectors represents a
persistent source of air pollution within many parts of South Africa, with the contribution of road
transport emissions becoming increasingly important. Additionally, biomass burning, including
agricultural burning and wild fires, represents an intermittent but seasonally significant source of
atmospheric emissions.
Effective air pollution control was historically hindered by the absence of enabling legislation and
cooperative governance. The promulgation of the National Environmental Management: Air
Quality Act, Act 39 of 2004 represented a major step forward in the evolution of air quality
management within South Africa. The historical debate regarding the practicability of effective air
quality management is however ongoing. South Africa‟s continued dependence on coal to support
its energy-intensive industrial and mining sectors, continued household fuel burning for space
heating and cooking purposes within a number of areas, and the dire need for employment creation
and focus on rapid development continue to challenge the realisation of air quality improvements.
This study investigates the multiple factors contributing to the degradation of air quality in South
Africa, and the consequent human health, environmental and economic effects of this pollution.
The study critically examines legal, technical and social measures implementable within a tailored
system of air quality management which is compatible with socio-economic growth. This thesis
integrates and expands on pertinent components of several individual research projects completed
by the author during her tenure as a doctoral candidate. The research projects were completed
during the period (2002 – 2009) on behalf of various parties including national and local
government, standards setting bodies and private organisations.
Quantification of health risks associated with significant anthropogenic sources within several
South African conurbations, covering 40% of the national population, and the establishment of
cost-optimised air pollution interventions, forms a key component of the thesis. In this externalities
study, emissions were estimated and effects and associated costs quantified for household fuel
burning, power generation, industrial and commercial fuel burning and road transport. Total direct
health costs related to inhalation exposures to fuel burning emissions were estimated to be of the
order of 3.5 billion 2002 Rands per annum across health effects, conurbations and source groupings
assessed. Household fuel burning was estimated to be responsible for about 68% of the total health
costs estimated across all conurbations, vehicle emissions for 13%, industrial and commercial fuel
burning for 13%, and power generation for about 6%.
Emission reduction opportunities were identified and assessed for residential fuel burning, coalfired
power generation, road transport, coal-fired industrial boilers and specific individual
industries. It was concluded that significant health effect reductions could cost-effectively be
achieved through addressing residential fuel burning as a priority. Lower benefit-cost ratios
associated with industrial and vehicular interventions are due, in part, to these fuel burning sources
having been more effectively regulated historically. The need for effective management of
industrial and vehicle emissions is however supported. Based on international experience and local
trends in vehicle activity, the contribution of transport emissions will become increasingly
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significant if not adequately addressed. Industrial process emissions unrelated to fuel burning may
include significant emissions of criteria pollutants, in addition to trace releases of a wide range of
hazardous air pollutants.
Internationally, actions taken to address air pollution problems have met with mixed results.
Failure to integrate economic considerations into air quality management planning, and to integrate
air quality considerations into development planning represent key weaknesses in the strategies
implemented. A contribution is made in this thesis by highlighting such lessons and proposing
legal, technical and social measures which, when implemented within a rational system of air
quality management, are suited to addressing complex air pollution sources without negatively
affecting socio-economic prosperity and equity. Components of an effective, affordable and
equitable emissions control policy proposed for adoption within South Africa include phased
national standards setting, compliance promotion and self-monitoring, market-based instruments,
and the implementation of risk-based enforcement and compliance monitoring strategies.