Abstract
Entrepreneurial orientation has been empirically researched in many studies that indicate the importance of this concept in understanding the dynamic world of businesses. However, the concept of individual entrepreneurial orientation (IEO) has been less prominent in literature. Moreover, many researchers have determined the valuable contribution that entrepreneurial education (EE) plays in supporting the economy of any country. It has been said that EE can empower individuals and therefore play a significant role in combatting many social ills that countries worldwide face. However, studies have not clearly investigated the influence that EE has on the IEO of university students in order to determine whether the EE that these students receive is, in fact, successfully orienting them to pursue an entrepreneurial career. Therefore, the study sought to investigate this influence and determine whether EE does have a positive influence on the IEO of university students. The researcher further sought to investigate this influence between two differing economies, a developing economy (South Africa) and a developed economy (Scotland). Scotland was chosen as a country of comparison due to its status as a well-established developed country with a robust entrepreneurship ecosystem and educational infrastructure. By comparing the two countries, South Africa can draw insights from a country that has achieved significant strides in entrepreneurship.
The study followed a five-stage approach. In Stage 1, a literature review was conducted, examining the concepts of EE and IEO and the various factors associated with each. Stage 2 of the study undertook a systematic review that aimed to explore an all-encompassing overview of previous studies in relation to EE and IEO. This was followed by Stage 3, which consisted of a qualitative study consisting of semi-structured interviews with university students and a Delphi study among a panel of subject-matter experts. Stage 4 comprised the development of the integrated conceptual framework that linked the results of Stages 2 and 3 of the study. Finally, Stage 5 consisted of the confirmation of the conceptual framework by employing a quantitative study that sought to explore the influence of EE on the IEO of university students.
The systematic review aimed to explore the literature currently available on EE and IEO. In literature, the main themes for the concept of EE included: a) the importance
vi
of the practical nature of EE; b) the influence of EE and c) EE approaches. In relation to IEO, the main themes derived were: a) the establishment of IEO; b) common IEO factors and c) the interchangeability of IEO, IO and EAO. Following the systematic review, interviews with university students were conducted, supplemented by a Delphi study among subject-matter experts. A total of 13 interviews were conducted, and 16 subject-matter experts were surveyed over two iterations. The triangulation of the approaches resulted in the development of conceptual framework outlining the EE approaches and the factors which underpin IEO. It was found that EE should be considered in relation to the learning about, learning through and learning for entrepreneurship approaches. The factors that were found to underpin IEO were risk-taking, innovativeness, proactiveness, competitive aggressiveness and autonomy, industry/work experience, resilience, strategic mindset, entrepreneurial leadership and emotional intelligence. Stage 5 then sought to confirm the conceptual framework using a quantitative study and adapted measuring instrument. The data was analysed using SPSS and EQS 6.4 by using descriptive statistics, reliability analysis, exploratory factor analysis, multivariate analysis of variance and path model analysis. A total of 2,841 questionnaires were distributed online, yielding 575 valid responses. The EFA that was conducted resulted in the joining and splitting of some IEO factors, which gave rise to an updated model being proposed. MANOVA and path model analysis were conducted and the MANOVA found that there was a statistical difference between South Africa and Scotland with regard to the constructs. The path model analysis confirmed nine of the 10 hypotheses in relation to South Africa, whilst only four of the hypotheses were supported in relation to Scotland. The study therefore revealed that in South Africa, EE has a stronger influence on the IEO of university students than in a developed country such as Scotland.
The findings of the study expand the existing body of knowledge on EE and IEO, as well as providing additional insight into the relationships that exist between these two concepts, in relation to a developed and developed economy. The study adds value, as tertiary institutions need to consider the economic context and structure of their EE curricula. In the current study, it was revealed that the EE approaches being utilised in South Africa and Scotland influence the IEO of students in different ways, noting that EE in South Africa has a stronger influence on IEO than in Scotland. While the study found that EE approaches have different influences on IEO of students in South
vii
Africa and Scotland, it does not necessarily imply that Scotland should directly replicate the model. Instead, Scotland can learn from the underlying principles and strategies that contribute to the success of EE in South Africa. By examining the factors that contribute to the effectiveness of EE in different contexts, researchers and educators can identify best practices and innovative approaches that can be adapted and implemented in their own countries. Furthermore, the various methods utilised throughout the study i.e. systematic review, Delphi study, semi-structured interviews and questionnaires, revealed several insights in relation to EE curricula and how this is affecting the IEO of students. Academic institutions may use the findings in the study as a basis to further understand the relationship that exists between EE and IEO among a student body and how this may be enhanced through adapting the EE approaches currently being used.