Abstract
The present essay entitled as “The Christian empire of the Roman East and
the kingdom of Axum from Constantine the great to Justinian” aims to
investigate the political, economical and military interconnection between the
early Byzantine Empire and the kingdom of Axum - during the period from 324
to 565 A. D. as well as to point out the influence exerted on Axum thereby.
All through the introduction part, the criteria of setting the time limits in the
essay, with regard to the Byzantine and Axum history, are exposed. In addition,
a reference to the primary and side historical sources is made furthermore, the
methodology used and the restricted area in which it is confined, are specified.
The difficulties that arouse during the elaboration and the presentation of the
material are also mentioned. Finally the title of the essay is justified and further
clarification concerning the terminology is provided.
The first chapter proposes a general review of the historical course of the
kingdom of Axum, starting from the 1st century A. D., when the first reference to
the city of Axum appears to have been made, to the close of the 6th century.
The intercourse between the people of Axum and the Greco-Roman world is
initially underlined as in succession to the bounds priory forged by the
Ptolemies and Hellenistic Egypt. The Greek influence on the foundations of the
civilization of Axum is therefore attested. Another theory is also framed; it
claims that the fact that Axum made its mark as a great eastern power in the
Red sea is closely associated with the promotion of the Greco-roman interests
in this particular area. Further to this, Axum’s historical course from the 4th to
the 6th post-christian century presented, a period mainly marked by the formal
recognition of christianism in both Byzantium and Axum. There is a reference to
the dominant leading figure of the kingdom of Axum during the 4th century,
Ezana, as well as to his part in the Axum’s conversion to Christianity. A Graeco-
Tyrian’s man contribution, named Frumentius, to this procedure was indeed
decisive; he promoted the diffusion of christianism from his position as the
underage king’s guardian and actual administrator of the state cases. At this
point of this chapter a mention in the second most significant moment in the
history of Axum is made, the one that initiates at the close of the 5th century by
Tazena and is brought to completion during the 6th century, that is, during the
reign of his son Caleb or Ella Asbeha. It‘s only then that Axum plays a leading
role in southern Arabia bringing the state of the Himyarites under its control and
converting it to Christianity. These facts of the 6th century being considered as
the most critical factors for the relations between Byzantium and Axum take up
a very important place throughout the whole essay and are fully developed in
the third and last subdivision of the first chapter. The historical review concludes
with the present of the events that led to losing control in S. Arabia and to the
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submission of the latter to Persian control. From that point on the relations
between Byzantium and Axum loosen up until they are irreversibly broken off
after the Arabian expansion and possession of Egypt in the 7th century. The
state of Axum was confined to its African part and was actually cut off from
trade activities in the East.
The second chapter looks into the relationships between the Byzantine
Empire and Axum. We consider the conversion of the country to Christianity as
the peak point in its evolution and historical course. Therefore, in the
introductory part of this chapter, we refer to the circumstances under which the
conversion took place. Rating the country’s position , in regard to the sea routes
of the eastern trade , as of major significance for the Byzantine interests and
considering that the Byzantium ‘s posture associated directly to the Byzantine –
Persian rivalry we speak of cite the connection between these two great
empires as well as the correlation of the forces in the wider area. Within this
context we place the conversion of Axum which we consider as an event of
great political and economical significance.
We the relations between Byzantium and Axum begin based on economicalcommercial
grounds, as it is believed that this kind of contact has been the
main pattern on which the rest of the contacts unfolded. The great importance
of agricultural economy for Axum is ascertained, yet its tremendous growth is
linked to trade activities. Moving on in the chapter the part Axum played as far
as the Byzantine interests in the Red sea are concerned is investigated. It is
believed that the two countries’ benefit were not at all opposed to each other,
on the contrary, the two powers took action within the same space in a
supplementary way and the port of Adoulis developed into a famous trading
port for the product of the East to be promoted to the Byzantine markets. The
people of Axum are reckoned to have passed over the Yemenites in this role
mostly because the Jewish penetration into the Yemeni nation, which rendered
them too precarious to be Byzantine allies. The proposition made to Caleb by
Justinian for a commercial and military collaboration against the Persian
interests is substantial evidence of the aforesaid relations. Axum appears to
have played a smaller part with regard to the relations between the Byzantines
and the Blemmyes and Nobades. As a conclusion to this attempt at
investigating this economic intercourse, there is a reference to the direct
commercial contact between the two countries’ citizens, as these emerge in
texts and documents of that time.
The second part of the first chapter deals with the military relations between
Byzantium and Axum. These relations are considered to be of great
significance on the grounds that Byzantium in many cases often foresaw the
potentially active military power of Axum, which could be used as a lever of
pressure. Initially we set out the belief that the Graeco-roman world was never
opposed to Axum’s strengthening, to which, on the contrary, it has never been
given great support as likey as not. Following up, we try to pinpoint possible
challenges between the two countries, investigating the incidents that connect
to Frumentiu’s imprisonment and the Axumite’s presence in Palmyra. We
believe that Axum was never against Byzantium but it never made common
cause with it directly, either. It did, however, back up the Byzantine interests in
an indirect way. We can sustain this allegation in regard to the operations
against the Blemmyes, who caused far less troubles to the southern border of
the Byzantine empire in Egypt, when they were under the control of Axum. In
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the last part of the chapter about military relations, an elaborate mention of the
military activity of the Axumites in southern Arabia during the 6th century is
made. These operations aimed at restraining the Jewish extension towards the
state of the Himyarites, which would be prejudicial to both Ethiopian and
Byzantine interests. The Axumites’ activation in this area emerged as a result of
formal collaboration with the Empire. The Homeritic state was converted to
christianism and was put under Axum’s control. As a Christian nation ventured
expeditions with the intention of controlling the tribes in the centre and north of
the Arabian peninsula, who are at great service for the Byzantine empire.
The third part of the second chapter is dedicated to political relations. These
relations tie in closely with the general competition between the Byzantine-
Persian Empire. Therefore, Byzantium used Axum as an allied power. It is
claimed that the conversion of Axum was a political choice, promoted by
Byzantium, in an attempt to arm itself against the Persian threat. On the other
hand, this choice is secured the political and economical interests of Axum,
which at the same time sought after the preservation of its independence.
This chapter concludes with the examination of the diplomatic relations
between the two states it refers to their intercourse during the 4th and 6th,
certified by the sources. We ascertain that their contacts were based on the
religious kindred of the two countries. The Byzantine emperor approached the
king of Axum counting on his alleged role as the protector of the Christians all
over the world, demonstrating his paternal concern. The impressions left by
these contacts were determinative of the Axumites’ view of things, although
their actual results were scanty. They prove, however, how important it was for
the Byzantine to form a common Christian front as a checking mechanism
against the Persian aspirations on the territory.
The third chapter of the essay examines the Byzantine influence that is
believed to have proceeded from Byzantium to Axum. It is originally detected in
the field of economy, in connection with the currency, the weights and
measures in commercial use, the economical set up and commissariat as well
in taxation. Further to this we establish various similarities in the way institutions
are formed and function. These similarities are pinpointed in the monarchy
constitution and particularly in the ideology that associates with the king’s figure
and power, his presence, the titles in which he is addressed and the process
that lead him to the royal office. Moreover, the noble council that surrounded
the king presents great resemblance to the Byzantine “senate”.
Little influence on the military set-up and commissariat is thought likely, as
well. Finally, the part of the Byzantine effect is visible in the organization of the
Church, which also works as vehicle of a wide range of effects on Axum. Such
influence can be found in the state’s political set-up, in both central and
provincial government. In addition, through the study of legislative sources, we
can ascertain an effect on legislation and dispensation of justice. The judicial
powers, at the head of which is the king himself, along with some of his officials,
appears to have received the influence stemming from the Byzantine
equivalent. Moreover, the legislation, as far as both its principals and procedural
system are concerned, has been greatly influenced by Christian ethics as well
as by the contemporary Byzantine legislative codes.
Moving further in this chapter, we detect the effects on the ideology, political
and social. At this point, it becomes clear that many of the fundamental ideas of
the Byzantine ideology can be found into the Axumite’s beliefs. Such ideas refer
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to the sacredness of the king, the state’s origins and role, which is believed to
be universal. Axum’s self-awareness and particularly the perception of their
position among other nations has likewise been affected by Byzantium. At this
point we refer to the way the Byzantines saw Axum. Due to serious lack of
historical evidence regarding the society of Axum, we can spot very little
influence in their social ideology. This chapter concludes with a pinpointing of
the influence on the way Axum organized its diplomatic protocol and performed
foreign policy.
The essay closes with the last part, the conclusion where the main
deductions are concisely recapitulated; the deductions to which we were led
during our study on the character and role of this state in the international
scenery of that time.
Prof. B. Hendrickx