Abstract
This study explored the language ideologies and family language policies (FLP) of Oshiwambo-speaking families in Windhoek, Namibia, as well as the way in which these affect the transmission and preservation of Oshiwambo as a heritage language. In a multilingual city where English is widely employed in media, education and social interactions, conserving heritage languages presents substantial obstacles. The study focused on ten families with children aged six to twelve, who had not studied Oshiwambo, but English and Afrkaans, at school. The study adopted a qualitative approach and employed semi-structured interviews and participant observations to collect data. The goal was to investigate the complexity of the languages employed by these families and understand the ways in which parents balanced the importance of Oshiwambo with the growing influence of English. This study also sheds light on the dynamics between parental intentions and the realities of language practice in the family setting, consequently, contributing to broader concerns about language policy and preservation in urban contexts.
The data revealed that, while most parents believed Oshiwambo was important for their children’s cultural heritage, identity and communication, there was a significant disparity between their language beliefs and actual practices. Many parents professed a strong desire to maintain Oshiwambo, although they frequently adopted English as the
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primary language, even before their children started school. This early introduction of English, frequently motivated by practical considerations and societal pressures, resulted in a steady language shift away from Oshiwambo. The study emphasises discrepancies in family language strategies, with some parents taking a bilingual approach while others favoured either a largely heritage language or an English-dominant policy. These disparities raise serious concerns regarding the efficacy of present language policy at the family level, as well as the long-term implications for language preservation.
The report also outlines different strategies employed by parents to promote Oshiwambo. These include the one-parent-one-language (OPOL) strategy, encouraging children to watch Oshiwambo TV programmes, reading Oshiwambo books and offering mother tongue tuition. Despite these attempts, the findings show that children frequently struggled to speak and learn Oshiwambo because of inconsistent and insufficient exposure to the language. The children appreciated the value of knowing Oshiwambo for communicating with their extended families, particularly their grandparents, but they experienced difficulties in becoming fluent in the language. This struggle highlights the necessity for more regulated and consistent language activities in the family, as well as the value of external support mechanisms to enhance language acquisition.
Furthermore, the study stresses the importance of grandparents in reinforcing Oshiwambo through intergenerational connections; however, relying entirely on grandparents for language transmission may not be adequate to perpetuate the
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language, especially in an environment where English is becoming more prevalent. The study also investigated the impact of internal migration on language use, as rural-urban migrants from Oshiwambo-speaking districts adapt to the linguistic context of Windhoek. This movement complicates the maintenance of heritage languages as families adjust to new social and linguistic environments. The findings indicate that a comprehensive approach, comprising both family efforts and larger community support, is required to secure the survival of the heritage language.
This study contributes significantly to the field of sociolinguistics and Family Language Policy (FLP) studies, particularly in an African context and broadens the geographic and linguistic reach of FLP research, which has previously been limited to European and North American contexts, by presenting empirical evidence from Namibia. It also provides practical understandings for heritage language education, emphasising the importance of intentional and maintained language policy by families, as well as increased community and educational support to supplement family efforts. The findings stress the significance of incorporating the preservation of the heritage language by larger societal institutions, such as schools and community initiatives. This method ensures that efforts made at home are encouraged and supported in the larger social context.
Finally, the study contributes to the global discussion of preserving linguistic diversity in multilingual and urbanised settings. It presents a paradigm that can be applied to different situations in which minority languages are threatened, both endoglossic and
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exoglossic, by the impact of dominant languages. The study has value for politicians, educators and multilingual families, since it provides vital recommendations for the preservation and development of heritage languages in an increasingly globalised society. By addressing both the micro-level of family domains and the macro-level of social factors, the study provides a comprehensive picture of the obstacles and potential in the preservation of the heritage language.