Abstract
Addition and subtraction have long been topics of study from Early childhood development (ECD)through grade 2 of primary school (Carpenter, Fennema, Franke, Levi, & Empson, 1999; Fuson, Wearne, Hiebert, Murray, Human, & Olivier, 1997) Research has examined how children work with single-digit numbers and sums of 20 or less. There is limited research about how children in the foundation phase grades (grades 2 through 3) represent and understand addition and subtraction with multidigit numbers. Rather than a focus on learners, much of the research focuses on teachers and classroom instruction. Research on Cognitively Guided Instruction (CGI) (Carpenter et al., 1999), which focused on the professional development of teachers, suggests that learners are able to solve more complex problems than teachers might anticipate. Children in primary grades were able to solve many different types of problems, including multiplication and division problems at early ages...
Ph.D. (Childhood Education)